{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:49:57Z","timestamp":1792792197143,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]],"date-time":"2024-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Contaminated sediments may induce long-term risks to humans and ecosystems due to the accumulation of priority and emerging inorganic and organic pollutants having toxic and bio-accumulation properties that could become a secondary pollution source. This study focused on the screening of novel bio-based materials to be used in the decontamination of marine sediments considering technical and environmental criteria. It aimed to compare the environmental impacts of cellulose-based adsorbents produced at lab scale by using different syntheses protocols that involved cellulose functionalization by oxidation and branching, followed by structuring of an aerogel-like material via Soxhlet extraction and freeze-drying or their combination. As model pollutants, we used 4-nitrobenzaldehyde, 4-nitrophenol, methylene blue, and two heavy metals, i.e., cadmium and chromium. When comparing the three materials obtained by only employing the Soxhlet extractor with different solvents (without freeze-dying), it was observed that the material obtained with methanol did not have a good structure and was rigid and more compact than the others. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted to evaluate the environmental performance of the novel materials. Apart from the hierarchical categorization of the materials based on their technical and environmental performance in eliminating organic pollutants and heavy metal ions, it was demonstrated that the cellulose-based material obtained via Soxhlet extraction with ethanol was a better choice, since it had lower environmental impacts and highest adsorption capacity for the model pollutants. LCA is a useful tool to optimize the sustainability of sorbent materials alongside lab-scale experiments and confirms that the right direction to produce new performant and sustainable adsorbent materials involves not only choosing wastes as starting materials, but also optimizing the consumption of electricity used for the production processes. The main results also highlight the need for precise data in LCA studies based on lab-scale processes and the potential for small-scale optimization to reduce the environmental impacts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16152101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,24]],"date-time":"2024-07-24T08:47:17Z","timestamp":1721810837000},"page":"2101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Bio-Based Materials as a Sustainable Solution for the Remediation of Contaminated Marine Sediments: An LCA Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Milvia Elena","family":"Di Clemente","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Polytechnic University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Barjoveanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, \u201cCristofor Simionescu\u201d Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, \u201cGheorghe Asachi\u201d Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8496-6678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Todaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Polytechnic University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michele","family":"Notarnicola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Polytechnic University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8058-6282","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen","family":"Teodosiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, \u201cCristofor Simionescu\u201d Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, \u201cGheorghe Asachi\u201d Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134837","article-title":"Marine Sediment Toxicity: A Focus on Micro- and Mesocosms towards Remediation","volume":"708","author":"Albarano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.08.053","article-title":"A Life Cycle Assessment Study on the Stabilization\/Solidification Treatment Processes for Contaminated Marine Sediments","volume":"201","author":"Barjoveanu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2019.121724","article-title":"Experimental Investigations and Nu-merical Modelling of In-Situ Reactive Caps for PAH Contaminated Marine Sediments","volume":"387","author":"Bortone","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.151257","article-title":"A Review of the In-Situ Capping Amendments and Modeling Approaches for the Remediation of Contaminated Marine Sediments","volume":"806","author":"Labianca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1007\/s11368-018-1921-7","article-title":"Review of Remediation Technologies for Sediments Contaminated by Heavy Metals","volume":"18","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Soils Sediments"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.124946","article-title":"Sustainability Assessment of Reactive Capping Alternatives for the Remediation of Contaminated Marine Sediments","volume":"286","author":"Todaro","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-8281-x","article-title":"In Situ Remediation of Contaminated Marinesediment: An Overview","volume":"24","author":"Lofrano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2004.02.003","article-title":"An Overview and Analysis of Site Remediation Technologies","volume":"71","author":"Khan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.135068","article-title":"A Simulation Study of Mercury Immobilization in Estuary Sediment Microcosm by Activated Carbon\/Clay-Based Thin-Layer Capping under Artificial Flow and Turbation","volume":"708","author":"Ting","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2018.23171","article-title":"Predicting the Effects of Capping Contaminated Sediments via Numerical Simulations","volume":"133","author":"Bortone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Desalination Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4370","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-6076-8","article-title":"Active Capping Technology: A New Environmental Remediation of Contaminated Sediment","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.3390\/su1041161","article-title":"Hazards and Risks of Engineered Nanoparticles for the Environment and Human Health","volume":"1","author":"Hristozov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2009.10.035","article-title":"Nanomaterials for Environmental Studies: Classification, Reference Material Issues, and Strategies for Physico-Chemical Characterisation","volume":"408","author":"Stone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.09.044","article-title":"Bin Impact of Humic\/Fulvic Acid on the Removal of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions Using Nanomaterials: A Review","volume":"468\u2013469","author":"Tang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerra, F.D., Attia, M.F., Whitehead, D.C., and Alexis, F. (2018). Nanotechnology for Environmental Remediation: Materials and Applications. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23071760"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2011.11.073","article-title":"Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron: Future Prospects for an Emerging Water Treatment Technology","volume":"211\u2013212","author":"Crane","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"219","article-title":"The Effect of Nanohydroxyapatite on the Behavior of Metals in a Microcosm Simulating a Lentic Environment","volume":"8","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2015.11.039","article-title":"Heavy Metal Removal from Aqueous Solution by Advanced Carbon Nanotubes: Critical Review of Adsorption Applications","volume":"157","author":"Abbas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.05.190","article-title":"Lead and Cadmium Adsorption by Electrospun PVA\/PAA Nano-fibers: Batch, Spectroscopic, and Modeling Study","volume":"233","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119009","article-title":"Eco-Design of Nanostructured Cellulose Sponges for Sea-Water Decontamination from Heavy Metal Ions","volume":"246","author":"Fiorati","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.120017","article-title":"Fabrication of Superporous Cellulose Beads via Enhanced Inner Cross-Linked Linkages for High Efficient Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions","volume":"253","author":"Qiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riva, L., Fiorati, A., and Punta, C. (2021). Synthesis and Application of Cellulose-Polyethyleneimine Composites and Nano-composites: A Concise Review. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14030473"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18539","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RA01427G","article-title":"Nano Zero Valent Iron (NZVI) Particles for the Removal of Heavy Metals (Cd2+, Cu2+ and Pb2+) from Aqueous Solutions","volume":"11","author":"Tarekegn","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.128937","article-title":"Taguchi Optimization Design of Diameter-Controlled Synthesis of Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes for the Adsorption of Pb(II) and Ni(II) from Chemical Industry Wastewater","volume":"266","author":"Egbosiuba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13632","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70587-w","article-title":"Life Cycle Assessment of Polyphenols Extraction Processes from Waste Biomass","volume":"10","author":"Barjoveanu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2017.08.072","article-title":"Polyethyleneimine-Bacterial Cellulose Bioadsorbent for Effective Removal of Copper and Lead Ions from Aqueous Solution","volume":"244","author":"Jin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morosanu, I., Bucatariu, F., Fighir, D., Paduraru, C., Mihai, M., and Teodosiu, C. (2023). Optimization of Lead and Diclofenac Removal from Aqueous Media Using a Composite Sorbent of Silica Core and Polyelectrolyte Coacervate Shell. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15081948"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1408","DOI":"10.1002\/cplu.201500145","article-title":"TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Cross-Linked with Branched Polyethyleneimine: Nanostructured Adsorbent Sponges for Water Remediation","volume":"80","author":"Melone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chempluschem"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1002\/cplu.201700185","article-title":"Mechanical and Drug Release Properties of Sponges from Cross-Linked Cellulose Nanofibers","volume":"82","author":"Fiorati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chempluschem"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2017.02.265","article-title":"Adsorption Behavior of Carboxylated Cellulose Nanocrystal\u2014Polyethyleneimine Composite for Removal of Cr(VI) Ions","volume":"408","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riva, L., Pastori, N., Panozzo, A., Antonelli, M., and Punta, C. (2020). Nanostructured Cellulose-Based Sorbent Materials for Water Decontamination from Organic Dyes. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10081570"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4235","DOI":"10.1021\/es103925u","article-title":"Use of Life Cycle Assessments to Evaluate the Environmental Footprint of Contaminated Sediment Remediation","volume":"45","author":"Sparrevik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115915","article-title":"Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of the Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Synthesis Process for Application in Contaminated Site Remediation","volume":"268","author":"Visentin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123837","article-title":"Chemistry behind Leather: Life Cycle Assessment of Nano-Hydroxyapatite Preparation on the Lab-Scale for Fireproofing Applications","volume":"279","author":"Ingrao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/jiec.12959","article-title":"Life Cycle Assessment of Emerging Environmental Tech-nologies in the Early Stage of Development: A Case Study on Nanostructured Materials","volume":"24","author":"Bartolozzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/jiec.12175","article-title":"The Role of Scale and Technology Maturity in Life Cycle Assessment of Emerging Technologies: A Case Study on Carbon Nanotubes","volume":"19","author":"Gavankar","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rechem.2022.100540","article-title":"A Comprehensive Study on Preparation of Nanocellulose from Bleached Wood Pulps by TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation","volume":"4","author":"Hop","year":"2022","journal-title":"Results Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2007.10.007","article-title":"Development of Simplified Models for the Freeze-Drying Process and Investigation of the Optimal Operating Conditions","volume":"86","author":"Velardi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"3061","article-title":"Freeze Drying Process: A Review","volume":"2","author":"Shukla","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Basc\u00f3n-Bascon, M.A., and Luque de Castro, M.D. (2020). Soxhlet Extraction. Handbooks in Separation Science, Elsevier. Liquid-Phase Extraction.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816911-7.00011-6"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2023.124147","article-title":"What Is next? The Greener Future of Solid Liquid Extraction of Biobased Compounds: Novel Techniques and Solvents Overpower Traditional Ones","volume":"320","author":"Su","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Tornero, V., and Hanke, G. (2018). Potential Chemical Contaminants in the Marine Environment an Overview of Main Contaminant Lists, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reichelt-Brushett, A. (2023). Marine Pollution-Monitoring, Management and Mitigation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-10127-4"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Part 1: Principles and Framework (Standard No. ISO ISO 14040)."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-016-1246-y","article-title":"ReCiPe2016: A Harmonised Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method at Midpoint and Endpoint Level","volume":"22","author":"Huijbregts","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.03.091","article-title":"Comparative Global Warming Potential Assessment of Eight Microcrystalline Cellulose Manufacturing Systems","volume":"126","author":"Husgafvel","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16105","DOI":"10.1039\/C7TA02807E","article-title":"Nanocellulose-Based Foams and Aerogels: Processing, Properties, and Applications","volume":"5","author":"Lavoine","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A Mater."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/16\/15\/2101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:22:01Z","timestamp":1760109721000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/16\/15\/2101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["polym16152101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym16152101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]]}}}