{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T09:13:59Z","timestamp":1774948439512,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]],"date-time":"2024-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main aim of this work is to evaluate the mechanical properties of additive manufactured polymeric parts joined with standard plastic parts through structural adhesives. The primary advantage of this technique is its ability to significantly increase the size of the final assembly by using additive manufacturing (AM) for complex joints and inexpensive, reliable extruded plastic parts for load-bearing components. This hybrid assembly combines the flexibility and shape adaptability of AM with the structural strength and cost-effectiveness of extruded polymer parts, resulting in a final design that performs comparably to the base material. The materials used in the paper are rigid acrylic adhesive and toughened acrylic, both applicable with almost no surface preparation and fast curing. The 3D-printed parts are produced in ABS, while the standard parts are in PVC. First, the work is devoted to estimating the performance of the adhesives using pin\u2013collar joints and a combined numerical and experimental methodology. The second section presents and discusses the results of two more realistic applications of adhesive bonding to hybrid complex joints. For the pin\u2013collar joints, the results show failure mostly in the adhesive, with an average shear stress of 11.5 MPa and 5.22 MPa and a stiffness of 4449 N\/mm and 3649 N\/mm for the rigid and toughened adhesives, respectively. The results of the adhesive bonding of structural joints show that the adhesive is always capable of providing the load-carrying capacity required to achieve the strength of traditionally manufactured polymeric parts. The paper shows that adhesives are a feasible way to expand the potential of 3D-printed equipment to obtain larger hybrid parts partially realized with traditional technology, especially with inexpensive off-the-shelf bars and sections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16213036","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]],"date-time":"2024-10-29T06:29:57Z","timestamp":1730183397000},"page":"3036","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Mechanical Strength of Additive Manufactured and Standard Polymeric Components Joined Through Structural Adhesives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8959-2599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Spaggiari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Amendola 2-Pad. Buccola, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Orlandini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Amendola 2-Pad. Buccola, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Adams, R.D., Comyn, J., and Wake, W.C. (1997). Structural Adhesive Joints in Engineering, Chapman and Hall."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/00218468908048207","article-title":"Strength Predictions for Lap Joints, Especially with Composite Adherends. A Review","volume":"30","author":"Adams","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/00218467208072208","article-title":"Surface Roughness and Bond Strength of Adhesives","volume":"4","author":"Jennings","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-7496(98)00034-7","article-title":"CLP new, effective, ecological surface pretreatment for highly durable adhesively bonded metal joints","volume":"19","author":"Broad","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-7496(98)00061-X","article-title":"The effects of grit-blasting on surface properties for adhesion","volume":"19","author":"Harris","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-7496(01)00059-8","article-title":"Effect of surface roughness on the strength of cleavage joints","volume":"22","author":"Shahid","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00218467708075095","article-title":"Stress Analysis of Adhesive Bonded Tubular Lap Joints","volume":"9","author":"Adams","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"537","article-title":"New accurate procedure for single shear testing of metals","volume":"2","author":"Iosipescu","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2018.02.011","article-title":"A modern account of Iosipescu testing","volume":"107","author":"Stojcevski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2015.12.033","article-title":"Measuring the shear strength of structural adhesives with bonded beams under antisymmetric bending","volume":"67","author":"Spaggiari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1520\/JTE12473J","article-title":"A Method for uniform shear stress-strain analysis of adhesives","volume":"18","author":"Wycherley","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Test. Eval."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A17","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4009336","article-title":"The stresses in cemented joints","volume":"11","author":"Goland","year":"1944","journal-title":"J. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1243\/03093247V243185","article-title":"Goland and reissner were correct","volume":"24","author":"Carpenter","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/0143-7496(90)90100-C","article-title":"Analysing structural adhesive joints for failure","volume":"10","author":"Crocombe","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2006.04.001","article-title":"Techniques to reduce the peel stresses in adhesive joints with composites","volume":"27","author":"Adams","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Hart-Smith, L. (1973). Adhesive-Bonded Single-Lap Joints, Douglas Aircraft Company."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7403(76)90003-5","article-title":"The adhesive scarf joint in pure bending","volume":"18","author":"Wah","year":"1976","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gay, D., Hoa, S.V., and Tsai, S.W. (2002). Composite Materials Design and Applications, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420031683"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/0263-8223(95)00059-3","article-title":"The effect of a spew fillet on adhesive stress distributions in laminated composite single-lap joints","volume":"32","author":"Tsai","year":"1995","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2017.09.014","article-title":"Use of the modified Arcan fixture to study the strength of bonded assemblies for automotive applications","volume":"80","author":"Alfonso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1590\/0104-1428.1485","article-title":"Failure criterion for adhesively bonded joints using Arcan\u00b4s experimental method","volume":"24","author":"Batalha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Polim. E Tecnol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2008.04.006","article-title":"Analysis of the nonlinear behavior of adhesives in bonded assemblies\u2014Comparison of TAST and Arcan tests","volume":"28","author":"Cognard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2010.07.005","article-title":"Effect of grooves on the strength of adhesively bonded joints","volume":"30","author":"Ferreira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1080\/00218464.2012.660831","article-title":"Experimental tests on tubular bonded butt specimens: Effect of relief grooves on tensile strength of the adhesive","volume":"88","author":"Spaggiari","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2014.01.006","article-title":"Regularization of torsional stresses in tubular lap bonded joints by means of functionally graded adhesives","volume":"53","author":"Spaggiari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2011.11.033","article-title":"Designing functionally graded materials with superior load-bearing properties","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1163\/156856106777657760","article-title":"Elastic stresses in an adhesively-bonded functionally-graded tubular single-lap joint in tension","volume":"20","author":"Apalak","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2011.11.010","article-title":"Functionally graded adhesives for composite joints","volume":"35","author":"Stapleton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"419","article-title":"Effect of post-cure on adhesively bonded functionally graded joints by induction heating","volume":"229","author":"Carbas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part L J. Mater. Des. Appl."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2021.106794","article-title":"Hybrid additive manufacturing of polymer composites reinforced with buckypapers and short carbon fibres","volume":"154","author":"Gackowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2010.06.022","article-title":"Damage and failure processes of hybrid joints: Adhesive bonded aluminium plates reinforced by rivets","volume":"50","author":"Sadowski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2014.03.001","article-title":"A study on the strength of adhesively bonded joints with different adherends","volume":"62","author":"Ozel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1851","DOI":"10.1177\/0954406219850221","article-title":"Mechanical strength of adhesively bonded joints using polymeric additive manufacturing","volume":"235","author":"Spaggiari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1108\/RPJ-09-2021-0259","article-title":"Evaluation of polymeric 3D printed adhesively bonded joints: Effect of joint morphology and mechanical interlocking","volume":"28","author":"Spaggiari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108257","article-title":"Strength and failure assessments of 3D printed PLA single lap joints: Experimental and numerical analysis","volume":"161","author":"Manoj","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frascio, M., de Sousa Marques, E.A., Carbas, R.J.C., da Silva, L.F.M., Monti, M., and Avalle, M. (2020). Review of tailoring methods for joints with additively manufactured adherends and adhesives. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13183949"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khosravani, M.R., Soltani, P., and Reinicke, T. (2021). Fracture and structural performance of adhesively bonded 3D-printed PETG single lap joints under different printing parameters. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech., 116.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2021.103087"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirpj.2023.08.006","article-title":"Effects of post-processing on the fracture behavior of surface-treated 3D-printed parts","volume":"46","author":"Khosravani","year":"2023","journal-title":"CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2023.107574","article-title":"Failure and fracture in adhesively bonded 3D-printed joints: An overview on the current trends","volume":"153","author":"Khosravani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2021.107262","article-title":"Structural integrity of adhesively bonded 3D-printed joints","volume":"100","author":"Khosravani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2019). Test Method for Shear Strength of Adhesives Using Pin-And-Collar Specimen (Standard No. ASTM D4562-01)."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2013). Adhesives\u2014Determination of Shear Strength of Anaerobic Adhesives Using Pin-And-Collar Specimens (Standard No. ISO 10123)."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2010.03.003","article-title":"Static and dynamic strength evaluation of interference fit and adhesively bonded cylindrical joints","volume":"30","author":"Croccolo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2012.01.011","article-title":"Design of hybrid steel-composite interference fitted and adhesively bonded connections","volume":"37","author":"Croccolo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Stratasys (2018, December 06). Fortus 3D Production Systems. Available online: http:\/\/usglobalimages.stratasys.com\/Main\/Files\/Machine_Spec_Sheets\/PSS_FDM_FortusSystemsMaterialsOverview.pdf?v=635832637185031244."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Stratasys (2019, April 04). ABSplus-P430 Mechanical Properties. Available online: http:\/\/usglobalimages.stratasys.com\/Main\/Files\/Material_Spec_Sheets\/MSS_FDM_ABSplusP430.pdf."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Loctite (2021, September 10). TDS for New Formulation of Loctite\u00ae 401TM. Available online: www.henkel.com\/industrial."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Loctite (2024, May 06). LOCTITE\u00ae 480TM TDS. Available online: www.henkel.com\/industrial."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardarelli, F. (2018). Polymers and Elastomers. Materials Handbook, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-38925-7"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Montgomery, D.C. (2004). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Design and Analysis of Experiments, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1080\/00218464.2012.751526","article-title":"Effect of mechanical surface treatment on the static strength of adhesive lap joints","volume":"89","author":"Spaggiari","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2013.09.009","article-title":"Adhesive stresses in axially-loaded tubular bonded joints\u2014Part I: Critical review and finite element assessment of published models","volume":"47","author":"Dragoni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2013.09.010","article-title":"Adhesive stresses in axially-loaded tubular bonded joints\u2014Part II: Development of an explicit closed-form solution for the Lubkin and Reissner model","volume":"48","author":"Goglio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2008.04.001","article-title":"Design of adhesive joints based on peak elastic stresses","volume":"28","author":"Goglio","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/16\/21\/3036\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:22:54Z","timestamp":1760113374000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/16\/21\/3036"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["polym16213036"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym16213036","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,29]]}}}