{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T19:12:09Z","timestamp":1792005129764,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741910400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency","award":["L2-50078"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["L2-50078"]}]},{"name":"Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency","award":["P2-0082"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P2-0082"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cellulosic ethanol has been an attractive biofuel for over a century. Despite the large scientific interest, the first step of treating cellulose before enzymatic hydrolysis is still inadequate, so the scientific community seeks innovative solutions. Among them, plasma treatment of raw cellulose represents an interesting approach. The literature on approaches to treat cellulose with gaseous plasma is surveyed, and the results reported by different authors are interpreted. Reactive gaseous particles like ions, electrons, metastables, and radicals interact chemically with the surface but do not cause significant depolymerization of bulk cellulose. Such depolymerization results from bond scission in the bulk cellulose by energetic plasma species capable of penetrating deep into the cellulose. Among them, photons in the range of vacuum ultraviolet radiation (photon energy above the threshold for bond scission) are the most suitable plasma species for the depolymerization of cellulose and the formation of water-soluble fragments, which are suitable for further treatment by enzymatic hydrolysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17060782","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,17]],"date-time":"2025-03-17T11:04:22Z","timestamp":1742209462000},"page":"782","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Plasma Treatment of Cellulose as the First Step in the Synthesis of Second-Generation Biofuel"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3959-776X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregor","family":"Primc","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surface Engineering, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3529-3371","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miran","family":"Mozeti\u010d","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surface Engineering, Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1002\/andp.18190631202","article-title":"Verwandlungen des Holzstoffs mittelst Schwefels\u00e4ure in Gummi, Zucker und eine eigne S\u00e4ure, und mittelst Kali in Ulmin","volume":"63","author":"Braconnot","year":"1819","journal-title":"Ann. Phys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.10.074","article-title":"The insight views of advanced technologies and its application in bio-origin fuel synthesis from lignocellulose biomasses waste, a review","volume":"82","author":"Ullah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Xu, Z., Cort, J.R., Qian, W.-J., and Yang, B. (2021). Lipid production from non-sugar compounds in pretreated lignocellulose hydrolysates by Rhodococcus jostii RHA1. Biomass Bioenergy, 145.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2021.105970"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1002\/btpr.206","article-title":"Sulfite pretreatment to overcome recalcitrance of lignocellulose (SPORL) for robust enzymatic saccharification of hardwoods","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Prog."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gce.2023.08.002","article-title":"A review on the chemo-catalytic conversion of cellulose to bio-ethanol","volume":"5","author":"Zhuang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Green Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., Qiu, H., Huang, L., Zhang, F., Tran, V.G., Yuan, J., He, N., and Cao, M. (2023). Emerging nonmodel eukaryotes for biofuel production. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 84.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2023.103015"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111627","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-27919-w","article-title":"Cellulase-immobilized chitosan-coated magnetic nanoparticles for saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass","volume":"30","author":"Kaur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12871","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-024-32100-y","article-title":"Potential of ionic liquids as emerging green solvent for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass","volume":"31","author":"Swami","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"and Asiri, A. (2020). Ionic Liquids: Green Solvent for Biomass Pretreatment. Nanotechnology-Based Industrial Applications of Ionic Liquids, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s12155-022-10425-1","article-title":"Ionic Liquid-Based Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioconversion: A Critical Review","volume":"16","author":"Roy","year":"2022","journal-title":"BioEnergy Res."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"61","article-title":"Ionic Liquid Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Enhanced Enzymatic Delignification","volume":"168","author":"Moniruzzaman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shiflett, M.B. (2020). Commercial Aspects of Biomass Deconstruction with Ionic Liquids. Commercial Applications of Ionic Liquids, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-35245-5"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3366","DOI":"10.1002\/cssc.201500282","article-title":"Current Pretreatment Technologies for the Development of Cellulosic Ethanol and Biorefineries","volume":"8","author":"Silveira","year":"2015","journal-title":"ChemSusChem"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40298","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c06579","article-title":"Fermentation of Biomass and Residues from Brazilian Agriculture for 2G Bioethanol Production","volume":"9","author":"Faria","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wongleang, S., Premjet, D., and Premjet, S. (2023). Physicochemical Pretreatment of Vietnamosasa pusilla for Bioethanol and Xylitol Production. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15193990"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1777","article-title":"Fermentative Production of Ethanol Using Pinus patula as Raw Material: Economic and Energy Assessment","volume":"11","author":"Caballero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waste Biomass Valorization"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2012.02.022","article-title":"Solubilization of hemicellulose and lignin from wheat straw through microwave-assisted alkali treatment","volume":"39","author":"Sieber","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1002\/bbb.49","article-title":"Pretreatment: The key to unlocking low-cost cellulosic ethanol","volume":"2","author":"Yang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefining"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1002\/bbb.1634","article-title":"Integrated enzyme production lowers the cost of cellulosic ethanol","volume":"10","author":"Johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefining"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.10.105","article-title":"Pyrolysis of methane via thermal steam plasma for the production of hydrogen and carbon black","volume":"46","author":"Raman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cap.2018.11.006","article-title":"Hydrophobization of cotton fabric by Gliding Arc plasma discharge","volume":"19","author":"Cerny","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2020.100873","article-title":"Progress in waste utilization via thermal plasma","volume":"81","author":"Sikarwar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2025, March 03). Cellulose, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/niosh\/npg\/npgd0110.html."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6595\/abc814","article-title":"Foundations of capacitive and inductive radio-frequency discharges","volume":"30","author":"Chabert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plasma Sources Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034005","DOI":"10.1088\/0963-0252\/21\/3\/034005","article-title":"On atmospheric-pressure non-equilibrium plasma jets and plasma bullets","volume":"21","author":"Lu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Plasma Sources Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s11090-019-10026-5","article-title":"Characterization of Gaseous Plasma Sustained in Mixtures of HMDSO and O2 in an Industrial-Scale Reactor","volume":"40","author":"Gosar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Plasma Chem. Plasma Process."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8964","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201104123","article-title":"Depolymerization of cellulose assisted by a nonthermal atmospheric plasma","volume":"50","author":"Benoit","year":"2011","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1002\/andp.18892730505","article-title":"Ueber die zum Funken\u00fcbergang in Luft, Wasserstoff und Kohlens\u00e4ure bei verschiedenen Drucken erforderliche Potentialdifferenz","volume":"273","author":"Paschen","year":"1889","journal-title":"Ann. Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1007\/s11090-023-10409-9","article-title":"Plasma Electrode Dielectric Barrier Discharge: Development, Characterization and Preliminary Assessment for Large Surface Decontamination","volume":"43","author":"Stancampiano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plasma Chem. Plasma Process."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Primc, G., and Mozetic, M. (2024). Plasma Treatment of Nanocellulose to Improve the Surface Properties. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16172516"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7163","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-022-04718-z","article-title":"Plasma treatment of cellulose: Investigation on molecular changes using spectroscopic methods and chemical derivatization","volume":"29","author":"Gerullis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vacuum.2009.04.028","article-title":"Plasma modification of viscose textile","volume":"84","author":"Vesel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vacuum"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magana, I., Georgouvelas, D., Handa, R., Neira Velazquez, M.G., Lopez Gonzalez, H.R., Enriquez Medrano, F.J., Diaz de Leon, R., and Valencia, L. (2021). Fully Bio-Based Elastomer Nanocomposites Comprising Polyfarnesene Reinforced with Plasma-Modified Cellulose Nanocrystals. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13162810"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawangrat, C., Thipchai, P., Kaewapai, K., Jantanasakulwong, K., Suhr, J., Wattanachai, P., and Rachtanapun, P. (2023). Surface Modification and Mechanical Properties Improvement of Bamboo Fibers Using Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Treatment. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15071711"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2004.06.005","article-title":"The hydrophilization of polystyrene substrates by 172-nm vacuum ultraviolet light","volume":"278","author":"Hozumi","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaplotnik, R., and Vesel, A. (2020). Effect of VUV Radiation on Surface Modification of Polystyrene Exposed to Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12051136"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6595\/ab8e4d","article-title":"Atmospheric plasma VUV photon emission","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Plasma Sources Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.1039\/c2gc35710k","article-title":"Combination of ball-milling and non-thermal atmospheric plasma as physical treatments for the saccharification of microcrystalline cellulose","volume":"14","author":"Benoit","year":"2012","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2042","DOI":"10.1002\/cssc.201300765","article-title":"Mechanocatalytic deconstruction of cellulose: An emerging entry into biorefinery","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"ChemSusChem"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-013-9940-4","article-title":"Aqueous pretreatment for reactive ball milling of cellulose","volume":"20","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2019.02.002","article-title":"Ball milling for cellulose depolymerization and alcoholysis to produce methyl levulinate at mild temperature","volume":"188","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15593","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-021-01800-7","article-title":"Ball milling as an important pretreatment technique in lignocellulose biorefineries: A review","volume":"13","author":"Sitotaw","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomass Convers. Biorefinery"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1051\/epjap:2004211","article-title":"Acidity control of the gliding arc treatments of aqueous solutions: Application to pollutant abatement and biodecontamination","volume":"29","author":"Moussa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200143","DOI":"10.1002\/ppap.202200143","article-title":"The role of metals in the deposition of long-lived reactive oxygen and nitrogen species into the plasma-activated liquids","volume":"20","author":"Kutasi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plasma Process. Polym."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1039\/C2EE23057G","article-title":"Mechanocatalytic depolymerization of cellulose combined with hydrogenolysis as a highly efficient pathway to sugar alcohols","volume":"6","author":"Hilgert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16522","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.201603214","article-title":"Impact of Nonthermal Atmospheric Plasma on the Structure of Cellulose: Access to Soluble Branched Glucans","volume":"22","author":"Delaux","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemistry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-011-6553-3","article-title":"Vacuum ultra violet absorption spectroscopy of 193 nm photoresists","volume":"105","author":"Fouchier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3903","DOI":"10.1039\/C6GC00814C","article-title":"Depolymerization of cellulose to processable glucans by non-thermal technologies","volume":"18","author":"Chatel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paul, D., Mozetic, M., Zaplotnik, R., Primc, G., Donlagic, D., and Vesel, A. (2023). A Review of Recombination Coefficients of Neutral Oxygen Atoms for Various Materials. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16051774"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasilieva, T., Chuhchin, D., Lopatin, S., Varlamov, V., Sigarev, A., and Vasiliev, M. (2017). Chitin and Cellulose Processing in Low-Temperature Electron Beam Plasma. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22111908"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2394146","DOI":"10.1080\/15440478.2024.2394146","article-title":"Production of Micro Nanofibrillated Cellulose from Prerefined Fiber via a Dry Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) Oxygen Plasma-Treated Powder Precursor","volume":"21","author":"Obradovic","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nat. Fibers"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2023.118759","article-title":"Accelerated thermostabilization through electron-beam irradiation for the preparation of cellulose-derived carbon fibers","volume":"218","author":"Jang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012114","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1144\/1\/012114","article-title":"Study on Penetration of 4-MeV Electron Beam in Natural Rubber Latex","volume":"1144","author":"Kosaentor","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.9b05604","article-title":"Atmospheric Low-Temperature Plasma-Induced Changes in the Structure of the Lignin Macromolecule: An Experimental and Theoretical Investigation","volume":"68","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1039\/D0GC00255K","article-title":"Producing high yield of levoglucosan by pyrolyzing nonthermal plasma-pretreated cellulose","volume":"22","author":"Lusi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1002\/jcc.26934","article-title":"Theoretical exploration of the reactivity of cellulose models under non-thermal plasma conditions-mechanistic and NBO studies","volume":"43","author":"Lamine","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Comput. Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2023.110582","article-title":"Evolution of surface functional groups and aromatic ring degradation upon treatment of polystyrene with hydroxyl radicals","volume":"218","author":"Vesel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1107\/S1600577524005423","article-title":"VUV absorption spectra of water and nitrous oxide by a double-duty differentially pumped gas filter","volume":"31","author":"Bodi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Synchrotron Radiat."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.110751","article-title":"Hydrogen peroxide formation in water during the VUV\/UV irradiation process: Impacts and mechanisms of selected anions","volume":"195","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scp.2022.100962","article-title":"Advanced oxidation processes in the treatment of corn stalks","volume":"32","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045504","DOI":"10.1088\/2058-6272\/aa4c20","article-title":"Dielectric barrier discharge plasma pretreatment on hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose","volume":"19","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Plasma Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6463\/ab795a","article-title":"Reactive nitrogen species in plasma-activated water: Generation, chemistry and application in agriculture","volume":"53","author":"Bradu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakai, K., Kojiya, S., Kamijo, J., Tanaka, Y., Tanaka, K., Maebayashi, M., Oh, J.S., Ito, M., Hori, M., and Shimizu, M. (2017). Oxygen-radical pretreatment promotes cellulose degradation by cellulolytic enzymes. Biotechnol. Biofuels, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13068-017-0979-6"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115704","article-title":"Non thermal plasma in liquid media: Effect on inulin depolymerization and functionalization","volume":"231","author":"Nastase","year":"2020","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cubas, A.L.V., Moecke, E.H.S., de Souza, L., Lima, A.S., Pereira, G.N., Derner, R.B., and Matos, \u00c2.P. (2024). Enhancement of biomass production and bio-products extraction from microalgae using non-thermal plasma process toward biofuel production. Braz. J. Chem. Eng.","DOI":"10.1007\/s43153-024-00456-w"}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/17\/6\/782\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:54:09Z","timestamp":1760028849000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/17\/6\/782"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["polym17060782"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym17060782","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]}}}