{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T01:32:13Z","timestamp":1790818333055,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,24]],"date-time":"2025-04-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745452800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study explores the fabrication, structural characteristics, and performance of an innovative porous geopolymer membrane made from waste natural zeolite powder for Pb(II) removal, with potential applications in wastewater treatment. A hybrid geopolymer membrane incorporating polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) (10, 20, and 30 wt.%) was synthesized and thermally treated at 300 \u00b0C to achieve a controlled porous architecture. Characterization techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), revealed the disappearance of characteristic C=O and C-H stretching bands (~1730 cm\u22121 and ~2900 cm\u22121, respectively), confirming the full degradation of PVAc. Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) indicated a total mass loss of approximately 14.5% for the sample with PVAc 20 wt.%, corresponding to PVAc decomposition and water loss. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) elemental mapping showed the absence of carbon residues post-annealing, further validating complete PVAc removal. X-ray diffraction (XRD) provided insight into the crystalline phases of the raw zeolite and geopolymer structure. Once PVAc removal was confirmed, the second phase of characterization assessed the membrane\u2019s mechanical properties and filtration performance. The thermally treated membrane, with a thickness of 2.27 mm, exhibited enhanced mechanical properties, measured with a nano-indenter, showing a hardness of 1.8 GPa and an elastic modulus of 46.7 GPa, indicating improved structural integrity. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed a well-defined porous network. Filtration performance was evaluated using a laboratory-scale dead-end setup for Pb(II) removal. The optimal PVAc concentration was determined to be 20 wt.%, resulting in a permeation rate of 78.5 L\/(m2\u00b7h) and an 87% rejection rate at an initial Pb(II) concentration of 50 ppm. With increasing Pb(II) concentrations, the flux rates declined across all membranes, while maximum rejection was achieved at 200 ppm. FTIR and EDS analyses confirmed Pb(II) adsorption onto the zeolite-based geopolymer matrix, with elemental mapping showing a uniform Pb(II) distribution across the membrane surface. The next step is to evaluate the membrane\u2019s performance in a multi-cation water treatment environment, assessing the sorption kinetics and its selectivity and efficiency in removing various heavy metal contaminants from complex wastewater systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17091155","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,24]],"date-time":"2025-04-24T04:04:50Z","timestamp":1745467490000},"page":"1155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Fabrication and Performance of PVAc-Incorporated Porous Self-Standing Zeolite-Based Geopolymer Membranes for Lead (Pb(II)) Removal in Water Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Samar","family":"Amari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical, Medical & Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariam","family":"Darestani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Western Sydney University (WSU), Sydney, NSW 2751, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4902-5458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Graeme","family":"Millar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical, Medical & Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1367-7216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bob","family":"Boshrouyeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.108784","article-title":"Association between Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Topsoil and Mental Health in the Adult Population of Spain","volume":"179","author":"Merlo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. 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