{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T22:16:07Z","timestamp":1791411367009,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Czech Science Foundation (GACR)","award":["21\u201332510 M"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21\u201332510 M"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Textile structures with ohmic (Joule) heating capability are frequently used for personal thermal management by tuning fluctuations in human body temperature that arise due to climatic changes or for medical applications as electrotherapy. They are constructed from electrically conductive textile structures prepared in different ways, e.g., from metallic yarns, conductive polymers, conductive coatings, etc. In comparison with other types of flexible ohmic heaters, these structures should be corrosion resistant, air permeable, and comfortable. They should not loose ohmic heating efficiency due to frequent intensive washing and maintenance. In this study, the basic electrical properties of a conductive fabric composed of a polyester\/cotton fiber mixture and a small amount of fine stainless-steel staple fibers (SS) were evaluated and predicted. Even though the basic conductive component of SS fibers is iron and its electrical characteristics obey Ohm\u2019s law, the electrical behavior of the prepared fabric was highly nonlinear, resembling a more complex response than that of a classical conductor. The non-linear behavior was probably due to non-ideal, poorly defined random interfaces between individual short SS fibers. A significant time\u2013dynamics relationship was also shown. Using the Stefan\u2013Boltzmann law describing radiation power, we demonstrated that it is possible to predict surface temperature due to the ohmic heating of a fabric related to the input electrical power. Significant local temperature variations in the heated hybrid fabric in both main directions (warp and weft) were identified.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17101339","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T12:22:17Z","timestamp":1747225337000},"page":"1339","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Hybrid Fabrics for Ohmic Heating Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8480-2622","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ji\u0159\u00ed","family":"Militk\u00fd","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Technical University Liberec, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karel","family":"Kupka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TriloByte Statistical Software, 533 52 Pardubice, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2410-6980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronika","family":"Tun\u00e1kov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Technical University Liberec, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8977-1244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohanapriya","family":"Venkataraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Technical University Liberec, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalwa, H.S. (1997). Handbook of Organic Conductive Molecules and Polymers, Volume, 4, Conductive Polymers: Photophysics and Application, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.601490"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wan, M. (2008). Conducting Polymers with Micro or Nanometer Structure, Springer."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Militk\u00fd, J., Venkataraman, M., and Periyasamy, A.P. (2023). Fibrous Structures and Their Impact on Textile Design, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-4827-5"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2012.07.037","article-title":"Electromagnetic shielding mechanism using soft magnetic stainless steel fiber enabled polyester textiles","volume":"324","author":"Shyr","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2016.10.026","article-title":"Development of porous and electrically conductive activated carbon web for effective EMI shielding applications","volume":"111","author":"Naeem","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1177\/004051750407401013","article-title":"Electromechanical behavior of fibers coated with an electrically conductive polymer","volume":"74","author":"Xue","year":"2004","journal-title":"Text. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1177\/004051759306300501","article-title":"Surface and Adhesion Properties of Polypyrrole-Coated Textiles","volume":"63","author":"Heisey","year":"1993","journal-title":"Text. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2005.07.017","article-title":"Conductive Fiber Prepared from Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyaniline for Smart Fabric and Interactive Textile Applications","volume":"154","author":"Bowman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Synth. Metals"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kristen, T. (2013). Multidisciplinary Know-How for Smart-Textiles Developers, Woodhead Publishing. Chapter 7.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857093530"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J. (2020). Functional Fibers, Composites and Textiles Utilizing Photothermal and Joule Heating. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12010189"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1887","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-3057(02)00064-2","article-title":"Electrical and thermal conductivity of polymers filled with metal powders","volume":"38","author":"Mamunya","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1177\/152808378801700404","article-title":"Metallized Fabrics: Techniques and Applications","volume":"17","author":"Smith","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Coat. Fabr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican08111906-96a","article-title":"Electric heating fabrics","volume":"95","author":"Gradenwitz","year":"1906","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.23588","article-title":"Multifunctional metal composite textile shields against electromagnetic radiation\u2014Effect of various parameters on electromagnetic shielding effectiveness","volume":"38","author":"Safarova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Repon, M.R., and Miku\u010dionien\u00e9, D. (2021). Progress in Flexible Electronic Textile for Heating Application: A Critical Review. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14216540"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160af\u00e1rov\u00e1, V., Malachov\u00e1, K., and Militk\u00fd, J. (2014, January 3\u20135). Electromechanical analysis of textile structures designed for wearable sensors. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Mechatronics\u2014Mechatronika, Brno, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/MECHATRONIKA.2014.7018294"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.03.021","article-title":"Flexible heating fabrics with temperature perception based on fine copper wire and fusible interlining fabrics","volume":"122","author":"Bai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"262","article-title":"A comprehensive review on applications of ohmic heating (OH), Renew. Sustain","volume":"39","author":"Sakr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700193","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.201700193","article-title":"Weft-Knitted Fabric for a Highly Stretchable and Low-Voltage Wearable Heater","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201013","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.202201013","article-title":"Gradient Response Color-Changing Joule Heating Fabric for Visual Temperature Detection","volume":"9","author":"Ge","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2021.12.012","article-title":"Glass fiber reinforced graphite\/carbon black@PES composite films for high temperature electric heaters","volume":"107","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2014.06.016","article-title":"Electrical contact resistance for a conductive Velcro system","volume":"80","author":"Joo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tribol. Int."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Banaszczyk, J., De Mey, G., Anca, A., Schwarz-Pfeiffer, A., and Van Langenhove, L. (2009, January 25\u201327). Contact resistance investigation between stainless steel electroconductive yarns. Proceedings of the 2009 MIXDES-16th International Conference Mixed Design of Integrated Circuits & Systems, Lodz, Poland."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meloun, M., and Militk\u00fd, J. (2011). Statistical Data Analysis, Woodhead Publisher.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857097200"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Holm, R. (1981). Electric Contacts Theory and Application, Springer."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Morton, W.E., and Hearle, J.W.S. (1975). Physical Properties of Textile Fibres, Heinemann the Textile Institute."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160af\u00e1\u0159ov\u00e1, V., Hes, L., and Militk\u00fd, J. (2014, January 9\u201310). An approach to electrical resistance measurement eliminating contact resistance problem. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Applied Electronics, Pilsen, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/AE.2014.7011715"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neruda, M., and Vojtech, L. (2014, January 3\u20135). Heating Ability of Electrically Conductive Textile Materials. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Mechatronics\u2013Mechatronika 2014, Brno, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/MECHATRONIKA.2014.7018332"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"194","article-title":"About Calculation the Resistance of Two-dimensional Infinite Grid Systems","volume":"9","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Electr. Electron."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1140\/epjb\/e2006-00311-x","article-title":"On the resistance of an infinite square network of identical resistors\u2014Theoretical and experimental comparison","volume":"52","author":"Asad","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1119\/1.19311","article-title":"Infinite resistive lattices","volume":"67","author":"Atkinson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1119\/1.1285881","article-title":"Application of the lattice Green\u2019s function for calculating the resistance of an infinite network of resistors","volume":"68","author":"Cserti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Newbury, D.E., Echlin, P., Joy, D.C., Lyman, C.E., Lifshin, E., Sawyer, L., and Michael, J.R. (2003). Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis, Springer. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vojtech, L., Neruda, M., Reichl, T., Dusek, K., and Meg\u00edas, C.D.L.T. (2018). Surface Area Evaluation of Electrically Conductive Polymer-Based Textiles. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11101931"}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/17\/10\/1339\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:32:48Z","timestamp":1760031168000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/17\/10\/1339"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["polym17101339"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym17101339","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]}}}