{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:03:54Z","timestamp":1787029434462,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia","award":["451-03-136\/2025-03\/200017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-136\/2025-03\/200017"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia","award":["451-03-137\/2025-03\/200123"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-137\/2025-03\/200123"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work reports a study on the structural characterization, evaluation of thermal stability, and non-isothermal decomposition kinetics of urea\u2013formaldehyde (UF) resin modified with hydrochar (obtained by the hydrothermal carbonization of spent mushroom substrate (SMS)) (UF-HC). The structural characterization of UF-HC, performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction analyses, showed that UF-HC consists of a large number of spheroidal particles, which are joined, thus forming clusters. It constitutes agglomerates, which are composed of crystals that have curved plate-like forms, including crystalline UF structure and graphite lattices with an oxidized face (graphene oxide, GO). The measurement of inherent thermal stability and non-isothermal decomposition kinetic analysis was carried out using simultaneous thermogravimetric\u2013differential thermal analyses (TGA-DTA) at various heating rates. Parameters that are obtained from thermal stability assessment have indicated the significant thermal stability of UF-HC. Substantial variation in activation energy and the pre-exponential factor with the advancement of decomposition process verifies the multi-step reaction pathway. The decomposition process takes place through three independent single-step reactions and one consecutive reactions step. The consecutive stage represents a path to the industrial production of valuable heterocyclic organic compounds (furan) and N-heterocyclic compounds (pyrroles), building a green-protocol trail. It was found that a high heating rate stimulates a high production of furan from cellulose degradation via the ring opening step, while a low heating rate favors the production of urea compounds (methylolurea hemiformal (HFn)) by means of methylene ether bridges breaking.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17101375","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,19]],"date-time":"2025-05-19T03:51:03Z","timestamp":1747626663000},"page":"1375","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Synthesis and Characterization of Bio-Composite Based on Urea\u2013Formaldehyde Resin and Hydrochar: Inherent Thermal Stability and Decomposition Kinetics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Bojan","family":"Jankovi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cVin\u010da\u201d Institute of Nuclear Sciences\u2014National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovi\u0107a Alasa 12-14, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vladimir","family":"Dodevski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cVin\u010da\u201d Institute of Nuclear Sciences\u2014National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovi\u0107a Alasa 12-14, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marija","family":"Jankovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cVin\u010da\u201d Institute of Nuclear Sciences\u2014National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovi\u0107a Alasa 12-14, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marija","family":"Milenkovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cVin\u010da\u201d Institute of Nuclear Sciences\u2014National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovi\u0107a Alasa 12-14, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3642-9741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suzana","family":"Samar\u017eija-Jovanovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Pri\u0161tina in Kosovska Mitrovica, 38220 Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0446-7762","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vojislav","family":"Jovanovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Pri\u0161tina in Kosovska Mitrovica, 38220 Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6197-1511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milena","family":"Marinovi\u0107-Cincovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cVin\u010da\u201d Institute of Nuclear Sciences\u2014National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovi\u0107a Alasa 12-14, P.O. 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