{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T17:13:57Z","timestamp":1786986837186,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750291200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Russian Science Foundation","award":["25-29-00535"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25-29-00535"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geopolymer concrete is a promising construction material that acts as an alternative to cement concrete. Unlike traditional cement concrete, geopolymers are environmentally friendly materials, the production of which does not involve significant carbon dioxide emissions. However, the structure formation and properties of geopolymers significantly depend on raw materials and are insufficiently studied. The aim of the study is to select the optimal combination of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA) as a binder and the optimal content of polypropylene fiber to create a sustainable, environmentally friendly and effective geopolymer concrete. To study various compositions of geopolymer binders selected by combining GGBS and FA, experimental geopolymer concrete mixtures and samples from them were manufactured. The density and slump of fresh concrete and the density and compressive strength of hardened composites were studied as mechanical characteristics. The microstructure of the geopolymer matrix was analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopes. The most rational combination of GGBS 80% and FA 20% was determined, which allows obtaining a composite with the highest compressive strength of up to 31.5 MPa. A dispersion reinforcement study revealed that 0.8% polypropylene fiber (PF) is optimal. This allowed us to increase the compressive strength by 7.3% and the flexural strength by 48.7%. The geopolymer fiber concrete obtained in this study is a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative composite material and has sufficient performance properties for its use as an alternative to cement concrete.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17121710","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T09:57:48Z","timestamp":1750327068000},"page":"1710","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Geopolymer Concrete Physical and Mechanical Properties on a Combined Binder Reinforced with Dispersed Polypropylene Fiber"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0364-5504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergei A.","family":"Stel\u2019makh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Unique Buildings and Constructions Engineering, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6173-9365","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexey N.","family":"Beskopylny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transport Systems, Faculty of Roads and Transport Systems, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5376-247X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evgenii M.","family":"Shcherban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering Geometry and Computer Graphics, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8086-6300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"Elshaeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Unique Buildings and Constructions Engineering, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0103-2587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrei","family":"Chernilnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Unique Buildings and Constructions Engineering, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Denis","family":"Kuimov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Digital Technologies and Platforms in Electric Power Industry, Faculty of Energy and Oil and Gas Industry, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandr","family":"Evtushenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Unique Buildings and Constructions Engineering, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samson","family":"Oganesyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Unique Buildings and Constructions Engineering, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"306","article-title":"Strength Calculation of the Coupling of the Floor Slab and the Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Frame Column by the Finite Element Method","volume":"22","author":"Gaidzhurov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ara\u00fajo, L.B.R., Targino, D.L.L., Babadopulos, L.F.A.L., Fabbri, A., Cabral, A.E.B., Chehade, R., and Costa, H.N. (2025). Impact of Curing Temperature and Steel Slag Aggregates on High-Strength Self-Compacting Alkali-Activated Concrete. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15030457"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikmehr, B., and Al-Ameri, R. (2022). A State-of-the-Art Review on the Incorporation of Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Geopolymer Concrete. Recycling, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling7040051"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, H.U., Mohammed, A.A., Rafiq, S., Mohammed, A.S., Mosavi, A., Sor, N.H., and Qaidi, S.M.A. (2021). Compressive Strength of Sustainable Geopolymer Concrete Composites: A State-of-the-Art Review. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132413502"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Beskopylny, A., Mailyan, L.R., and Meskhi, B. (2022). Increasing the Corrosion Resistance and Durability of Geopolymer Concrete Structures of Agricultural Buildings Operating in Specific Conditions of Aggressive Environments of Livestock Buildings. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031655"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gulam, N.F.B.A., Kaish, A.B.M.A., Mahmood, A., Raman, S.N., Jamil, M., and Hamid, R. (2021). A Review on the Effect of Fly Ash, RHA and Slag on the Synthesizing of Coal Bottom Ash (CBA) Based Geopolymer. Eng. Proc., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ASEC2021-11164"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luhar, S., Luhar, I., and Shaikh, F.U.A. (2021). Review on Performance Evaluation of Autonomous Healing of Geopolymer Composites. Infrastructures, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures6070094"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ionescu, B.A., L\u0103z\u0103rescu, A.-V., and Hegyi, A. (2020). The Possibility of Using Slag for the Production of Geopolymer Materials and Its Influence on Mechanical Performances\u2014A Review. Proceedings, 63.","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2020063030"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, J., Qin, Y., Yao, Z., Luo, L., and Qu, C. (2024). Study on the Chloride\u2013Sulfate Resistance of a Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Mortar. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17205045"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"4","article-title":"Development of geopolymer binders","volume":"7","author":"Murtazaev","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Mater. Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adeleke, B.O., Kinuthia, J.M., Oti, J., and Ebailila, M. (2023). Physico-Mechanical Evaluation of Geopolymer Concrete Activated by Sodium Hydroxide and Silica Fume-Synthesised Sodium Silicate Solution. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16062400"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, W., Li, B., Meng, X., and Shen, Q. (2023). Compound Effects of Sodium Chloride and Gypsum on the Compressive Strength and Sulfate Resistance of Slag-Based Geopolymer Concrete. Buildings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13030675"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arunachelam, N., Maheswaran, J., Chellapandian, M., Murali, G., and Vatin, N.I. (2022). Development of High-Strength Geopolymer Concrete Incorporating High-Volume Copper Slag and Micro Silica. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14137601"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hema, P., and Revathi, V. (2024). Durability Evaluation of GGBS-RHA-Based Geopolymer Concrete Along with Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate Using SEM Images and EDAX Analysis. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14113355"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oti, J., Adeleke, B.O., Mudiyanselage, P.R., and Kinuthia, J. (2024). A Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of GGBS-Based Geopolymer Concrete Activated by a Rice Husk Ash-Synthesised Sodium Silicate Solution and Sodium Hydroxide. Recycling, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling9020023"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Liu, Z., Takasu, K., Koyamada, H., and Suyama, H. (2023). Study on the Effect of Recycled Fine Aggregate Qualities on Fly Ash\/GGBS-Based Geopolymer Mortar. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16237289"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polydorou, T., Spanou, M., Savva, P., Sakkas, K., Oikonomopoulou, K., Petrou, M.F., and Nicolaides, D. (2022). Development of a High Strength Geopolymer Incorporating Quarry Waste Diabase Mud (DM) and Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS). Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15175946"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thakur, G., Singh, Y., Singh, R., Prakash, C., Saxena, K.K., Pramanik, A., Basak, A., and Subramaniam, S. (2022). Development of GGBS-Based Geopolymer Concrete Incorporated with Polypropylene Fibers as Sustainable Materials. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su141710639"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamed, Y.R., Keshta, M.M., Elshikh, M.M.Y., Elshami, A.A., Matthana, M.H.S., and Youssf, O. (2025). Performance of Sustainable Geopolymer Concrete Made of Different Alkaline Activators. Infrastructures, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures10020041"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Q., Shang, N., and Ko, J.H. (2024). Utilization of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (MSWIFA) in Geopolymer Concrete: A Study on Compressive Strength and Leaching Characteristics. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17184609"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marczyk, J., Ziejewska, C., G\u0105dek, S., Korniejenko, K., \u0141ach, M., G\u00f3ra, M., Kurek, I., Do\u011fan-Sa\u011flamtimur, N., Hebda, M., and Szechy\u0144ska-Hebda, M. (2021). Hybrid Materials Based on Fly Ash, Metakaolin, and Cement for 3D Printing. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14226874"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waqas, R.M., and Butt, F. (2021). Behavior of Quarry Rock Dust, Fly Ash and Slag Based Geopolymer Concrete Columns Reinforced with Steel Fibers under Eccentric Loading. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11156740"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, H.-B., Bui, Q.-B., and Tang, L. (2021). Geopolymer Recycled Aggregate Concrete: From Experiments to Empirical Models. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14051180"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zailani, W.W.A., Abdullah, M.M.A.B., Arshad, M.F., Razak, R.A., Tahir, M.F.M., Zainol, R.R.M.A., Nabialek, M., Sandu, A.V., Wys\u0142ocki, J.J., and B\u0142och, K. (2021). Characterisation at the Bonding Zone between Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Repair Materials (GRM) and Ordinary Portland Cement Concrete (OPCC). Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14010056"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agustini, N.K.A., Triwiyono, A., Sulistyo, D., and Suyitno, S. (2021). Mechanical Properties and Thermal Conductivity of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Foams with Polypropylene Fibers. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11114886"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikoloutsopoulos, N., Sotiropoulou, A., Kakali, G., and Tsivilis, S. (2021). Physical and Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete Compared to Conventional Concrete. Buildings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings11050178"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad Zailani, W.W., Bouaissi, A., Abdullah, M.M.A.B., Abd Razak, R., Yoriya, S., Mohd Salleh, M.A.A., Rozainy M. A. Z., M.R., and Fansuri, H. (2020). Bonding Strength Characteristics of FA-Based Geopolymer Paste as a Repair Material When Applied on OPC Substrate. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10093321"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, K., Butt, F., Alwetaishi, M., Waqas, R.M., Aslam, F., Ibraheem, M., Zhu, X., Ahmad, N., Tufail, R.F., and Musarat, M.A. (2021). Effect of Quarry Rock Dust as a Binder on the Properties of Fly Ash and Slag-Based Geopolymer Concrete Exposed to Ambient and Elevated Temperatures. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11199192"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, C., Wang, A., Bao, X., Chen, Z., Ni, T., and Wang, Z. (2020). Protective Geopolymer Coatings Containing Multi-Componential Precursors: Preparation and Basic Properties Characterization. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13163448"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, X., Ming, F., Li, D., Chen, L., and Liu, Y. (2020). Influence of Water Content on Mechanical Strength and Microstructure of Alkali-Activated Fly Ash\/GGBFS Mortars Cured at Cold and Polar Regions. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13010138"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhina, M.R., Liu, K.-Y., Hu, J.-E.H.-Y., and Tsai, C.-T. (2023). Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of Quick-Strength Geopolymer Material Considering Preheated-to-Room Temperature Ratio of Sand, Na2SiO3-to-NaOH Ratio, and Fly Ash-to-GGBS Ratio. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15051084"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ionescu, B.A., Barbu, A.-M., L\u0103z\u0103rescu, A.-V., Rada, S., Gabor, T., and Florean, C. (2023). The Influence of Substitution of Fly Ash with Marble Dust or Blast Furnace Slag on the Properties of the Alkali-Activated Geopolymer Paste. Coatings, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings13020403"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, S., Cai, Y., Guo, Y., Lin, J., Liu, G., Lan, X., and Song, Y. (2022). Experimental Study on Axial Compressive Performance of Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibers Reinforced Fly Ash\u2014Slag Geopolymer Composites. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14010142"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meskhi, B., Beskopylny, A.N., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Mailyan, L.R., Shilov, A.A., El\u2019shaeva, D., Shilova, K., Karalar, M., and Aksoylu, C. (2023). Analytical Review of Geopolymer Concrete: Retrospective and Current Issues. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16103792"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zubarev, K.P., Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Beskopylny, A.N., Elshaeva, D., Chernil\u2019nik, A., Zakieva, N.I., Pimenova, E.V., and Shilov, A.A. (2024). Structure and Properties Improvement by Recipe Factors of Geopolymer Basalt Fiber Reinforced Concrete for Building Enclosing Structures. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14030743"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"66","article-title":"Improving Theoretical Concepts of Composition Design of Dispersedly-Reinforced Concretes","volume":"3","author":"Saprykina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mod. Trends Constr. Urban Territ. Plan."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"e04268","article-title":"Dynamic compressive mechanical properties of fibre-reinforced geopolymer concrete","volume":"22","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.138649","article-title":"The effect of hybrid basalt fibres on the mechanical and structural characteristics of geopolymer concrete containing geopolymer-coated recycled concrete aggregates","volume":"450","author":"Nikmehr","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.06.078","article-title":"Long-term durability investigation of basalt fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete in marine environment","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2024.10.238","article-title":"Mechanical behavior and microscopic damage mechanism of hybrid fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete at elevated temperature","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, J., Wang, J., Chen, H., and Xiang, P. (2022). High Temperature Exposure Assessment of Graphene Oxide Reinforced Cement. Front. Mater., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2022.786260"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, B., Li, Y., and Li, P. (2024). Synergistic Effect of Blended Precursors and Silica Fume on Strength and High Temperature Resistance of Geopolymer. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17122975"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirgozar Langaroudi, M.A., Mohtasham Moein, M., Saradar, A., and Karakouzian, M. (2025). Investigation of the Mechanical Properties and Durability of Fiber-Reinforced Geopolymer Mortars Containing Metakaolin and Glass Powder. Infrastructures, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures10020025"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.061","article-title":"Mechanical and microstructural characterization of fiber reinforced fly ash based geopolymer composites","volume":"167","author":"Canpolat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.137069","article-title":"Rheological, mechanical, and microscopic properties of polypropylene fiber reinforced-geopolymer concrete for additive manufacturing","volume":"438","author":"Masoud","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.10.164","article-title":"Durability of geopolymer concrete with addition of polypropylene fibre","volume":"56","author":"Rani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Beskopylny, A.N., Meskhi, B., Efremenko, I., Shilov, A.A., Vialikov, I., Ananova, O., Chernil\u2019nik, A., and Elshaeva, D. (2024). Composition, Structure and Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Dispersedly Reinforced with Sisal Fiber. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14092810"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.136661","article-title":"Mechanical, durability and microstructural characterization of cost-effective polyethylene fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete","volume":"432","author":"Raza","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-023-2202-6","article-title":"Durability and Mechanical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Based Geopolymer Concrete Containing Polyolefin Fibers and Nano Silica","volume":"28","author":"Mansourghanaei","year":"2024","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Li, L., Wei, M., Xiang, Y., Wu, Y., Zhou, B., Sun, Y., and Cheng, W. (2025). Experimental study on the mechanical properties of short-cut basalt fiber reinforced concrete under large eccentric compression. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-94964-5"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"69","article-title":"About Dynamics of Improving the Foam Concrete Technological and Operational Properties upon Disperse Reinforcement with Polypropylene Fibers","volume":"2","author":"Morgun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mod. Trends Constr. Urban Territ. Plan."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V\u00e1zquez-Rodr\u00edguez, F., Elizondo, N., Montes-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., G\u00f3mez-Rodr\u00edguez, C., Gonz\u00e1lez-Carranza, Y., Guzm\u00e1n, A.M., and Rodr\u00edguez, E.A. (2023). Microstructural and Mechanical Characteristics of Alkali-Activated Binders Composed of Milled Fly Ash and Granulated Blast Furnace Slag with \u00b5-Limestone Addition. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16103818"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gudiel, E., Pay\u00e1, J., Borrachero, M.V., and Monz\u00f3, J.M. (2025). Physico-Mechanical Properties of Alkali-Activated Based Composites Using Recycled Tire Fibers. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15031346"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beskopylny, A.N., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Mailyan, L.R., Meskhi, B., El\u2019shaeva, D., and Varavka, V. (2021). Developing Environmentally Sustainable and Cost-Effective Geopolymer Concrete with Improved Characteristics. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132413607"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, Y., Chen, Y., Dai, W., Yang, H., Jiang, L., Li, K., and Jin, W. (2024). Preparation and Properties of Porous Concrete Based on Geopolymer of Red Mud and Yellow River Sediment. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17040923"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.061","article-title":"Isothermal reaction kinetics and temperature dependence of alkali activation of slag, fly ash and their blends","volume":"45","author":"Chithiraputhiran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Safari, Z., Younis, K.H., and Kamal, I. (2024). Sustainable Utilization of Waste Pumice Powder in Slag-Based Geopolymer Concretes: Fresh and Mechanical Properties. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16219296"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2017). Testing Fresh Concrete\u2014Part 2: Slump Test (Standard No. GOST R 57809-2017\/EN 12350-2:2009). Available online: https:\/\/docs.cntd.ru\/document\/1200157288."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 7: Density of Hardened Concrete (Standard No. EN 12390-7:2019). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/811a0cf3-55e3-495a-b06e-5c302d5f2806\/en-12390-7-2019."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2021). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 1: Shape, Dimensions and Other Requirements of Specimens and Moulds (Standard No. EN 12390-1:2021). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/d1c9ccee-2e5a-425e-a964-961da95d2f99\/en-12390-1-2021."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 2: Making and Curing Specimens for Strength Tests (Standard No. EN 12390-2:2019). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/ae7e6a86-1cbc-455e-8b2a-8964be9087f9\/en-12390-2-2019."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 3: Compressive Strength of Test Specimens (Standard No. EN 12390-3:2019). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/7eb738ef-44af-436c-ab8e-e6561571302c\/en-12390-3-2019."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 4: Compressive Strength\u2014Specification for Testing Machines (Standard No. EN 12390-4:2019). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/10b1c613-819b-42d7-8f94-480cd37a666a\/en-12390-4-2019."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 5: Flexural Strength of Test Specimens (Standard No. EN 12390-5:2019). Available online: https:\/\/standards.iteh.ai\/catalog\/standards\/cen\/5653c2c7-55a9-4bcb-8e13-5b1dfb0e3baf\/en-12390-5-2019."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2018). Concretes. Methods for Strength Determination Using Reference Specimens (Standard No. GOST 10180-2012). Available online: https:\/\/docs.cntd.ru\/document\/1200100908."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2024.108007","article-title":"Multi-optimization of FA-BFS based geopolymer concrete mixes: A synergistic approach using grey relational analysis and principal component analysis","volume":"71","author":"Ansari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"1","article-title":"Eco-Friendly Foam Concrete with Improved Physical and Mechanical Properties, Modified with Fly Ash and Reinforced with Coconut Fibers","volume":"8","author":"Beskopylny","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Mater. Prod."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2012.10.004","article-title":"Role of slag in microstructural development and hardening of fly ash-slag geopolymer","volume":"43","author":"Puligilla","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeurceramsoc.2011.04.036","article-title":"A model for the C-A-S-H gel formed in alkali-activated slag cements","volume":"31","author":"Puertas","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Eur. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.141496","article-title":"Macro\u2013micro investigation on stabilization sludge as subgrade filler by the ternary blending of steel slag and fly ash and calcium carbide residue","volume":"447","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batran, T.Z., Ismail, M.K., Serag, M.I., and Ragab, A.M. (2024). Cement-Free Geopolymer Paste: An Eco-Friendly Adhesive Agent for Concrete and Masonry Repairs. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14113426"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amleh, L., Hassan, M., and Hussein, L. (2024). Influence of Climate Change on the Probability of Chloride-Induced Corrosion Initiation for RC Bridge Decks Made of Geopolymer Concrete. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16188200"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherwani, A.F.H., Younis, K.H., Arndt, R.W., and Pilakoutas, K. (2022). Performance of Self-Compacted Geopolymer Concrete Containing Fly Ash and Slag as Binders. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su142215063"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, G.-Y., Lee, S., Han, Y., and Wang, X.-Y. (2023). The Effect of Oyster Shell Powder on the High-Temperature-Properties of Slag-Ceramic Powder-Based Geopolymer. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16103706"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Liu, E., and Fu, Y. (2023). Reduction in Drying Shrinkage and Efflorescence of Recycled Brick and Concrete Fine Powder\u2013Slag-Based Geopolymer. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13052997"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125110","article-title":"Development and preliminary mix design of ultra-high-performance concrete based on geopolymer","volume":"308","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.159","article-title":"Effects of silica fume on mechanical strength and microstructure of basalt fiber reinforced cementitious composites (BFRCC)","volume":"162","author":"Sadrmomtazi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Beskopylny, A.N., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Mailyan, L.R., Meskhi, B., Shilov, A.A., Pimenova, E., and El\u2019shaeva, D. (2023). Combined Effect of Ceramic Waste Powder Additives and PVA on the Structure and Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Used for Finishing Facades of Buildings. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16083259"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ert\u00fcrkmen, D., \u00dcr\u00fcnveren, H., Beycio\u011flu, A., Ibadov, N., Arunta\u015f, H.Y., and Garbacz, A. (2025). Bond Performance of GFRP Bars in Glass and Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Under Hinged Beam Tests. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18030498"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, T.I., Rashed, A.S., and Tobbala, D.E. (2025). Sustainable Self-Healing Geopolymer Concrete Incorporating Recycled Plastic, Brick Waste, and Bacillus sphaericus. Ceramics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ceramics8020072"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, S., Matthews, J., Amritphale, S., Edwards, R., Matthews, E., Paul, N., and Kraft, J. (2024). Influence of Steel and Poly Vinyl Alcohol Fibers on the Development of High-Strength Geopolymer Concrete. Minerals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/min14101007"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Liu, Q., Ding, X., Sun, S., and Huang, Z. (2023). Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Permeable Geopolymer Concrete. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16176030"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., Qiu, X., Shen, S., Wang, L., and Zang, Y. (2023). Mechanical and Thermal Insulation Properties of rGFRP Fiber-Reinforced Lightweight Fly-Ash-Slag-Based Geopolymer Mortar. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15097200"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Q., Liu, Y., and Le, H. (2022). Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Phosphoric Acid Activated Geopolymer Materials Reinforced with Mullite Fibers. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4039420"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heweidak, M., Kafle, B., and Al-Ameri, R. (2022). Influence of Hybrid Basalt Fibres\u2019 Length on Fresh and Mechanical Properties of Self-Compacted Ambient-Cured Geopolymer Concrete. J. Compos. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs6100292"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziada, M., Erdem, S., Tammam, Y., Kara, S., and Lezcano, R.A.G. (2021). The Effect of Basalt Fiber on Mechanical, Microstructural, and High-Temperature Properties of Fly Ash-Based and Basalt Powder Waste-Filled Sustainable Geopolymer Mortar. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132212610"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.10.036","article-title":"Mechanical and durability characteristics of flyash and GGBFS based polypropylene fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete","volume":"59","author":"Murthy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gailitis, R., Radina, L., Pakrastins, L., and Sprince, A. (2025). Mechanical and Early Long-Term Property Assessment of Foamed 3D-Printable Geopolymer Composite. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18122837"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, K.V.A., Nguyen, T.K., Le, T.A., Han, S.W., Lee, G., and Lee, K. (2019). Assessment of Performance of Fiber Reinforced Geopolymer Composites by Experiment and Simulation Analysis. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9163424"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"227","article-title":"Study of Structural Defects Evolution in Fine-Grained Concrete Using Computed Tomography Methods","volume":"24","author":"Puzatova","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"387","article-title":"Effect of Glass Fiber Reinforcement on the Mechanical Properties of Polyester Composites","volume":"23","author":"Antipas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gete.2025.100663","article-title":"Study on novel alkali-activated cementitious grout for scour control of offshore foundation","volume":"42","author":"Sha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Geomech. Energy Envir."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beskopylny, A.N., Shcherban\u2019, E.M., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Mailyan, L.R., Meskhi, B., and El\u2019shaeva, D. (2022). The Influence of Composition and Recipe Dosage on the Strength Characteristics of New Geopolymer Concrete with the Use of Stone Flour. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12020613"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.141195","article-title":"Mechanical properties and microstructures of thermally activated ultrafine recycled fine powder cementitious materials","volume":"475","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"24","article-title":"Development of Laboratory-made Compositions of Concrete Based on the Certain Raw Materials and Restrictions of the AKKUYU NPP Construction","volume":"1","author":"Razveeva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mod. Trends Constr. Urban Territ. Plan."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/17\/12\/1710\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:55:07Z","timestamp":1760032507000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/17\/12\/1710"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["polym17121710"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym17121710","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]}}}