{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T04:02:27Z","timestamp":1782273747583,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["ITMS2014+: 313011V358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ITMS2014+: 313011V358"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["ITMS2014+: 313011V455"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ITMS2014+: 313011V455"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["ITMS2014+: 313011W410"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ITMS2014+: 313011W410"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, the authors focus on optimizing the processing parameters for the fabrication of biodegradable polymer filaments intended for subsequent 3D printing of biomedical structures and implants. Following extrusion and additive manufacturing, the produced materials underwent a comprehensive evaluation that included mechanical, microbiological, biofilm formation, and electron microscopy analyses. The complexity of these tests aimed to determine the potential of the developed materials for biomedical applications, particularly in the field of scaffold fabrication. At the initial stage, three types of filaments (technical designations 111, 145, and 146) were produced using Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) technology. These filaments were based on a PLA\/PHB matrix with varying types and concentrations of plasticizers. Standardized destructive tensile and compressive mechanical tests were conducted using an MTS Insight 1 kN testing system equipped with an Instron 2620-601 extensometer. Among the tested samples, the filament labeled 111, composed of PLA\/PHB thermoplastic starch and a plasticizer, exhibited the most favorable mechanical performance, with a Young\u2019s modulus of elasticity of 4.63 MPa for 100% infill. The filament labeled 146 had a Young\u2019s modulus of elasticity of 4.53 MPa for 100% infill and the material labeled 145 had a Young\u2019s modulus of elasticity of 1.45 MPa for 100% infill. Microbiological assessments were performed to evaluate the capacity of bacteria and fungi to colonize the material surfaces. During bacterial activity assessment, we observed biofilm formation on the examined sample surfaces of each material from the smooth and rough sides. The colony-forming units (CFUs) increased directly with the exposure time. For all samples from each material, the Log10 (CFU) value reached above 9.41 during 72 h of incubation for the activity of each type of bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans). Scanning electron microscopy provided insight into the surface quality of the material and revealed its local quality and purity. Surface defects were eliminated by this method. Overall, the results indicate that the designed biodegradable filaments, especially formulation 111, have promising properties for the development of scaffolds intended for hard tissue replacement and could also be suitable for regenerative applications in the future after achieving the desired biological properties.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17243328","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]],"date-time":"2025-12-17T13:42:52Z","timestamp":1765978972000},"page":"3328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Development and Characterization of Biodegradable Polymer Filaments for Additive Manufacturing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1944-2867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom\u00e1\u0161","family":"Balint","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jozef","family":"\u017div\u010d\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Radovan","family":"Hud\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8689-3644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marek","family":"Schnitzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4162-4306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miroslav","family":"Kohan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9577-2043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Danko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Sta\u0161ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Szedl\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering and Measurement Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Ko\u0161ice, Letn\u00e1 1\/9, 042 00 Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4408-3173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marek","family":"Ja\u0142brzykowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bialystok University of Technology, ul. Wiejska 45 c, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Leszczy\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Nanobiomedical Engineering, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8905-8468","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pavol","family":"Alexy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Natural and Synthetic Polymers, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinsk\u00e9ho 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivana","family":"B\u00edrov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Natural and Synthetic Polymers, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinsk\u00e9ho 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zuzana","family":"Vanov\u010danov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Natural and Synthetic Polymers, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinsk\u00e9ho 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3484-0002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Culenov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Biology, Genetics and Clinical Genetics of the Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinkova 4, 811 08 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3889","article-title":"The promise of organ and tissue preservation to transform medicine","volume":"35","author":"Giwa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. 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