{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T04:07:27Z","timestamp":1790741247462,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":198,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]],"date-time":"2025-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766361600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"U.S. National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2237510"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2237510"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Shape memory polymers (SMPs) represent an innovative class of materials that possess programmed, reversible shape-changing capabilities in response to external stimuli. The recent emergence of SMPs\u2019 advanced manufacturing, specifically 4D printing, has created exceptional opportunities for use in biomedical engineering. This review presents a critical synthesis of the latest advances in the chemistry, biomedical applications, manufacturing strategies, and clinical translation of SMPs, highlighting vat photopolymerization techniques, such as stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP). Notably, 4D-printed SMPs can promote spatiotemporally controlled architectures, and applications include minimally invasive implants, dynamic tissue scaffolds, and multifunctional drug delivery. This paper focuses on recent advances in resin design, multi-responsive and nanocomposite resins, AI-guided material discovery, and emerging biocompatible and biodegradable formulations, while outlining current roadblocks to clinical implementation, including cytotoxicity, sterilization, regulatory compliance, and device shelf-life. Our goal is to elucidate the relationship between material design, processing, and biomedical performance to inform researchers of potential future directions for 4D-printed SMPs and next-generation, patient-centered medical devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18010024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T11:30:18Z","timestamp":1766489418000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Four-Dimensional Printing of Shape Memory Polymers for Biomedical Applications: Advances in DLP and SLA Manufacturing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2916-1718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raj Kumar","family":"Pittala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1162-4128","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc Anthony","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neha","family":"Reddy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Academy of Mathematics and Science, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2392-7059","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Swank","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0603-6683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melanie","family":"Ecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-3773(20020617)41:12<2034::AID-ANIE2034>3.0.CO;2-M","article-title":"Shape-memory polymers","volume":"41","author":"Lendlein","year":"2002","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015006","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aca576","article-title":"Thermo\/hydration responsive shape memory polymers with enhanced hydrophilicity for biomedical applications","volume":"32","author":"Suzuki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"192","article-title":"Novel constitutive models, challenges and opportunities of shape memory polymer composites","volume":"13","author":"Uyan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.3390\/polym6041178","article-title":"Chitosan membranes exhibiting shape memory capability by the action of controlled hydration","volume":"6","author":"Correia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3409","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-022-02454-w","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Modified Poly(vinyl alcohol) Membrane and Study of Its Enhanced Water-Induced Shape-Memory Behavior","volume":"30","author":"Panda","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirasadi, K., Yousefi, M.A., Jin, L., Rahmatabadi, D., Baniassadi, M., Liao, W., Bodaghi, M., and Baghani, M. (2025). 4D Printing of Magnetically Responsive Shape Memory Polymers: Toward Sustainable Solutions in Soft Robotics, Wearables, and Biomedical Devices. Adv. Sci., e13091.","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202513091"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2985","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TB00006D","article-title":"4D printing for biomedical applications","volume":"12","author":"Mandal","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramezani, M., and Ripin, Z.M. (2023). 4D Printing in Biomedical Engineering: Advancements, Challenges, and Future Directions. J. Funct. Biomater., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb14070347"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2201975","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202201975","article-title":"Research Progress of Shape Memory Polymer and 4D Printing in Biomedical Application","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.18063\/ijb.764","article-title":"Smart implants: 4D-printed shape-morphing scaffolds for medical implantation","volume":"9","author":"Qu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Bioprinting"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slavkovic, V., Palic, N., Milenkovic, S., Zivic, F., and Grujovic, N. (2023). Thermo-Mechanical Characterization of 4D-Printed Biodegradable Shape-Memory Scaffolds Using Four-Axis 3D-Printing System. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16145186"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01133","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202343001133","article-title":"SMART Materials for Biomedical Applications: Advancements and Challenges","volume":"430","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"E3S Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"213575","article-title":"4D printing of biocompatible, hierarchically porous shape memory polymeric structures","volume":"153","author":"Bond","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2024.02.009","article-title":"Digital light 4D printing of bioresorbable shape memory elastomers for personalized biomedical implantation","volume":"177","author":"Mahjoubnia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Hull, C.W. (2025, May 19). Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography. U.S. Patent 4,575,330, 11 March 1986. Available online: https:\/\/patents.google.com\/patent\/US4575330A\/en."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Hornbeck, L.J., Nelson, W.E., and Carlo, J.T. (2025, May 12). Deformable Mirror Electrostatic Printer. February 1986, Dallas, TX, USA, Available online: https:\/\/image-ppubs.uspto.gov\/dirsearch-public\/print\/downloadPdf\/4571603."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yakacki, C.M., and Gall, K. (2009). Shape-Memory Polymers for Biomedical Applications. Shape-Memory Polymers. Advances in Polymer Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/12_2009_23"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1039\/D4BM00004H","article-title":"Recent advances in shape memory polymeric nanocomposites for biomedical applications and beyond","volume":"12","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-7021(07)70047-0","article-title":"Shape-Memory Polymers","volume":"10","author":"Behl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.5301\/IJAO.2011.6424","article-title":"One-Way and Reversible Dual-Shape Effect of Polymer Networks Based on Polypentadecalactone Segments","volume":"34","author":"Behl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ping, Z., Xie, F., Gong, X., Liu, L., Leng, J., and Liu, Y. (2023). Effects of Accelerated Aging on Thermal, Mechanical and Shape Memory Properties of Cyanate-Based Shape Memory Polymer: III Vacuum Thermal Cycling. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15081893"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmps.2013.08.003","article-title":"Coarse-grained simulation of molecular mechanisms of recovery in thermally activated shape-memory polymers","volume":"61","author":"Abberton","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mech. Phys. Solids"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909047","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201909047","article-title":"Shape-Memory Polymers for Biomedical Applications","volume":"30","author":"Delaey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chitrakar, C., Torres, M.A., Rocha-Flores, P.E., Hu, Q., and Ecker, M. (2023). Multifaceted Shape Memory Polymer Technology for Biomedical Application: Combining Self-Softening and Stretchability Properties. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15214226"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1039\/b615954k","article-title":"Review of progress in shape-memory polymers","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012001","DOI":"10.1088\/2399-7532\/aaed58","article-title":"From softening polymers to multimaterial based bioelectronic devices","volume":"2","author":"Ecker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Multifunct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"094005","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/9\/094005","article-title":"Durability of switchable QR code carriers under hydrolytic and photolytic conditions","volume":"22","author":"Ecker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2021.117633","article-title":"Water-induced shape memory behavior of poly (vinyl alcohol) and p-coumaric acid-modified water-soluble chitosan blended membrane","volume":"257","author":"Panda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300158","DOI":"10.1002\/mame.202300158","article-title":"Light and Shape-Memory Polymers: Characterization, Preparation, Stimulation, and Application","volume":"308","author":"Fang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Macromol. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011008","DOI":"10.1115\/1.2999447","article-title":"Light activated shape memory polymer characterization","volume":"76","author":"Beblo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2020.109912","article-title":"Light activated shape memory polymers and composites: A review","volume":"136","author":"Herath","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3540","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0600079103","article-title":"Initiation of shape-memory effect by inductive heating of magnetic nanoparticles in thermoplastic polymers","volume":"103","author":"Mohr","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2561","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-014-0983-y","article-title":"Effect of Different Shape-Memory Processing Methods on the Thermomechanical Cyclic Properties of a Shape-Memory Polyurethane","volume":"23","author":"Santiago","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lendlein, A. (2010). Characterization Methods for Shape-Memory Polymers. Shape-Memory Polymers, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-12359-7"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2899","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00644F","article-title":"Custom 3D printer and resin for 18 \u03bcm \u00d7 20 \u03bcm microfluidic flow channels","volume":"17","author":"Gong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3413","article-title":"A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity","volume":"34","author":"Kang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1039\/C8MH01398E","article-title":"3D printing of ionic conductors for high-sensitivity wearable sensors","volume":"6","author":"Yin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Horizons"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10212","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.7b00074","article-title":"Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing","volume":"117","author":"Ligon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105305","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1591\/abbd05","article-title":"4D printing of shape memory polymer via liquid crystal display (LCD) stereolithographic 3D printing","volume":"7","author":"Shan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmaterialslett.9b00262","article-title":"Digital Light Processing 3D Printing of Triple Shape Memory Polymer for Sequential Shape Shifting","volume":"1","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14137","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14137","article-title":"Shape memory polymers with high and low temperature resistant properties","volume":"5","author":"Xiao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Qin, Q., and Wang, J. (2020). A review of stereolithography: Processes and systems. Processes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr8091138"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2018.02.021","article-title":"4D printing of shape memory polyurethane via stereolithography","volume":"101","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2401933","DOI":"10.1080\/17452759.2024.2401933","article-title":"SLA printing of shape memory bio-based composites consisting of soybean oil and cellulose nanocrystals","volume":"19","author":"Chu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virtual Phys. Prototyp."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2021.109617","article-title":"Modeling and characterization of shape memory properties and decays for 4D printed parts using stereolithography","volume":"203","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18998","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-03632-1","article-title":"Comparison of mechanical properties of different 3D printing technologies","volume":"15","author":"Katheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2200907","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202200907","article-title":"Digital Light 3D Printed Bioresorbable and NIR-Responsive Devices with Photothermal and Shape-Memory Functions","volume":"9","author":"Marbach","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/s41427-023-00511-x","article-title":"Swift 4D printing of thermoresponsive shape-memory polymers using vat photopolymerization","volume":"15","author":"Alam","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPG Asia Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2022.111556","article-title":"4D printing of shape memory inferior vena cava filters based on copolymer of poly(glycerol sebacate) acrylate-co-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (PGSA-HEMA)","volume":"225","author":"Qu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.134211","article-title":"3D printing of a versatile applicability shape memory polymer with high strength and high transition temperature","volume":"431","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1021\/acscentsci.5c00289","article-title":"Multicolor Digital Light Processing 3D Printing Enables Dissolvable Supports for Freestanding and Non-Assembly Structures","volume":"11","author":"Mason","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Central Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2020.10.008","article-title":"Vat photopolymerization 3D printing for advanced drug delivery and medical device applications","volume":"329","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"151","article-title":"3D printing processes for photocurable polymeric materials: Technologies, materials, and future trends","volume":"16","author":"Taormina","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomater. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18110","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c02624","article-title":"Photosensitive Composite Inks for Digital Light Processing Four-Dimensional Printing of Shape Memory Capture Devices","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5504","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-41267-w","article-title":"Recyclable photoresins for light-mediated additive manufacturing towards Loop 3D printing","volume":"14","author":"Varela","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18849","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b04205","article-title":"Support-Free Ceramic Stereolithography of Complex Overhanging Structures Based on an Elasto-viscoplastic Suspension Feedstock","volume":"11","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"100159","article-title":"Additive manufacturing technologies with emphasis on stereolithography 3D printing in pharmaceutical and medical applications: A review","volume":"5","author":"Lakkala","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. X"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3356","DOI":"10.1039\/b923717h","article-title":"Biomedical applications of thermally activated shape memory polymers","volume":"20","author":"Small","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110580","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202110580","article-title":"4D Printing of Shape Memory Polymers: From Macro to Micro","volume":"32","author":"Spiegel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalirajan, C., Dukle, A., Nathanael, A.J., Oh, T.-H., and Manivasagam, G. (2021). A critical review on polymeric biomaterials for biomedical applications. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13173015"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2017.04.049","article-title":"4D printing of high performance shape memory polymer using stereolithography","volume":"126","author":"Choong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0234","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0234","article-title":"Shape Memory Polymer Composites: 4D Printing, Smart Structures, and Applications","volume":"6","author":"Yan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1111\/php.13099","article-title":"Antimicrobial Thiol\u2013ene\u2013acrylate Photosensitive Resins for DLP 3D Printing","volume":"95","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2021.124110","article-title":"Thiol\u2013acrylate based vitrimers: From their structure\u2013property relationship to the additive manufacturing of self-healable soft active devices","volume":"231","author":"Shaukat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4604","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.7b00834","article-title":"Characterization of a Thiol-Ene\/Acrylate-Based Polymer for Neuroprosthetic Implants","volume":"2","author":"Do","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1039\/D2PY00113F","article-title":"3D printed elastomers with Sylgard-184-like mechanical properties and tuneable degradability","volume":"13","author":"Leroux","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym. Chem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4677","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.3c01276","article-title":"Digital Light Processing Resins with Programmable Shape Memory for Biomedical Applications","volume":"25","author":"Aldana","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Lee, S.-Y., and Lin, Y.-M. (2020). Synthesis and formulation of PCL-Based Urethane acrylates for DLP 3D printers. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12071500"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7830","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.1c00856","article-title":"Solvent-Free Three-Dimensional Printing of Biodegradable Elastomers Using Liquid Macrophotoinitiators","volume":"54","author":"Sandmeier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakarya, D., Zorlu, T., Y\u00fccel, S., Sahin, Y.M., and \u00d6zarslan, A.C. (2024). Advanced Bioresin Formulation for 3D-Printed Bone Scaffolds: PCLDMA and p-PLA Integration. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16040534"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1021\/acspolymersau.5c00022","article-title":"Nanoscale Structure\u2013Property Relationships of Cyanate Ester as a Function of Extent of Cure","volume":"5","author":"Kashmari","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Polym. Au"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38682","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c10909","article-title":"High-Performance Cyanate Ester Resins with Interpenetration Networks for 3D Printing","volume":"12","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"51322","article-title":"Effect of Carbon\u2013Carbon Double Bond Content on the Final Properties of Stereolithography 3D-Printed Parts from Vegetable Oil-Based, Acrylated Resins","volume":"10","author":"Adeyera","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.3144\/expresspolymlett.2019.34","article-title":"Properties of biobased epoxy resins from epoxidized linseed oil (ELO) crosslinked with a mixture of cyclic anhydride and maleinized linseed oil","volume":"13","author":"Samper","year":"2019","journal-title":"Express Polym. Lett."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rekowska, N., Teske, M., Arbeiter, D., Brietzke, A., Konasch, J., Riess, A., Mau, R., Eickner, T., Seitz, H., and Grabow, N. (2019, January 23\u201327). Biocompatibility and thermodynamic properties of PEGDA and two of its copolymer. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8857503"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rekowska, N., Huling, J., Brietzke, A., Arbeiter, D., Eickner, T., Konasch, J., Riess, A., Mau, R., Seitz, H., and Grabow, N. (2022). Thermal, Mechanical and Biocompatibility Analyses of Photochemically Polymerized PEGDA250 for Photopolymerization-Based Manufacturing Processes. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14030628"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rostami, N., Faridghiasi, F., Ghebleh, A., Noei, H., Samadzadeh, M., Gomari, M.M., Tajiki, A., Abdouss, M., Aminoroaya, A., and Kumari, M. (2023). Design, Synthesis, and Comparison of PLA-PEG-PLA and PEG-PLA-PEG Copolymers for Curcumin Delivery to Cancer Cells. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202306.1882.v1"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steudter, T., Lam, T., Pirmahboub, H., Stoppel, C., Kloke, L., Pearson, S., and del Campo, A. (2024). Hyaluronic Acid-based Inks for Stereolithography (Bio)printing: Benefits of Thiol-ene vs. Acrylate Functionalized Inks. ChemRxiv.","DOI":"10.26434\/chemrxiv-2024-bcdl6"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2025.125432","article-title":"3D Printing with tuneable degradation: Thiol-ene and thiol-yne containing formulations for biomedical applications","volume":"674","author":"Locks","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3456","DOI":"10.1021\/bm301333w","article-title":"Facile Functionalization of Polyesters through Thiol-yne Chemistry for the Design of Degradable, Cell-Penetrating and Gene Delivery Dual-Functional Agents","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.4c01004","article-title":"Trends in Photopolymerization 3D Printing for Advanced Drug Delivery Applications","volume":"26","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6470","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.4c01923","article-title":"Redefining Medical Applications with Safe and Sustainable 3D Printing","volume":"8","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowalska, A., Sokolowski, J., and Bociong, K. (2021). The Photoinitiators Used in Resin Based Dental Composite\u2014A Review and Future Perspectives. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13030470"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2023.106071","article-title":"Effect of substitution on light-curable properties in diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)phosphine oxide: DFT and TD-DFT calculations","volume":"35","author":"Qin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2013.10.085","article-title":"Analysis and design of smart mandrels using shape memory polymers","volume":"59","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, G.-T., Go, H.-B., Yu, J.-H., Yang, S.-Y., Kim, K.-M., Choi, S.-H., and Kwon, J.-S. (2022). Cytotoxicity, Colour Stability and Dimensional Accuracy of 3D Printing Resin with Three Different Photoinitiators. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14050979"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.porgcoat.2020.105716","article-title":"Use of floating acylphosphine oxide-based photoinitiators to reduce surface oxygen inhibition of UV-LED photopolymerization","volume":"147","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Org. Coat."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2021.105103","article-title":"Cytotoxic and cytocompatible comparison among seven photoinitiators-triggered polymers in different tissue cells","volume":"72","author":"Zeng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. In Vitro"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.4012\/dmj.2009-137","article-title":"A review of the development of radical photopolymerization initiators used for designing light-curing dental adhesives and resin composites","volume":"29","author":"Ikemura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dent. Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaukat, U., S\u00f6lle, B., Rossegger, E., Rana, S., and Schl\u00f6gl, S. (2022). Vat Photopolymerization 3D-Printing of Dynamic Thiol-Acrylate Photopolymers Using Bio-Derived Building Blocks. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14245377"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2023.107966","article-title":"Photoresponsive triple shape memory polymers with a self-healing function based on poly (lactic acid)\/polycaprolactone blends","volume":"120","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, S., Cao, X., Sun, Y., Chen, L., Ma, C., Yang, L., Zhao, H., Liu, Q., Liu, Z., and Ma, C. (2023). Polyurethane Shape Memory Polymer\/pH-Responsive Hydrogel Hybrid for Bi-Function Synergistic Actuations. Gels, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9050428"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.137534","article-title":"Rubber-like composites with tunable thermal- and photo-responsive shape memory properties","volume":"447","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e53046","DOI":"10.1002\/app.53046","article-title":"Acrylate-free tough 3D printable thiol-ene thermosets and composites for biomedical applications","volume":"139","author":"Badria","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"74","article-title":"Digital light processing 3D printing of conductive complex structures","volume":"18","author":"Mu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106774","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202106774","article-title":"DLP 4D-Printing of Remotely, Modularly, and Selectively Controllable Shape Memory Polymer Nanocomposites Embedding Carbon Nanotubes","volume":"31","author":"Cosola","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.18231\/j.jdp.2024.035","article-title":"3D printing\u2014A paradigm shift in orthodontic appliances and patient care","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Dent. Panacea"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2023.106337","article-title":"Physiochemical and mechanical characterisation of orthodontic 3D printed aligner material made of shape memory polymers (4D aligner material)","volume":"150","author":"Atta","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strunz, A., Berger, L., Seidel, A., Ries, J., Adler, W., Wichmann, M., and Matta, R.E. (2025). The Impact of Three-Dimensional Printer Technology on the Accuracy of Dental Implant Models. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18091902"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schweiger, J., Edelhoff, D., and G\u00fcth, J.-F. (2021). 3D Printing in Digital Prosthetic Dentistry: An Overview of Recent Developments in Additive Manufacturing. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10092010"},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"222","article-title":"Design and fabrication of customizable microneedles enabled by 3D printing for biomedical applications","volume":"32","author":"Loh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2019.05.008","article-title":"Digital light processing (DLP) 3D-printing technology and photoreactive polymers in fabrication of modified-release tablets","volume":"135","author":"Kadry","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.125051","article-title":"4D printing of biodegradable intestinal drug delivery devices with shape-memory effect","volume":"669","author":"Yuts","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800101","DOI":"10.1002\/adbi.201800101","article-title":"Stereolithographic 4D Bioprinting of Multiresponsive Architectures for Neural Engineering","volume":"2","author":"Miao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2022.122046","article-title":"Formulation and characterization of immediate-release oral dosage forms with zolpidem tartrate fabricated by digital light processing (DLP) 3D printing technique","volume":"624","author":"Adamov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, T.-Y., Zhang, J., Yu, T., Wu, J.-P., and Liu, Q.-Y. (2022). 3D Bioprinting for Spinal Cord Injury Repair. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.847344"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4337","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.5c00441","article-title":"Bioprinted Microchannel Scaffolds Modulate Neuronal Differentiation of Encapsulated Human Spinal Cord Progenitor Cells","volume":"8","author":"Kwokdinata","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27226","DOI":"10.1038\/srep27226","article-title":"4D printing smart biomedical scaffolds with novel soybean oil epoxidized acrylate","volume":"6","author":"Miao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Yang, Y., Yang, Z., Ma, R., Aimaijiang, M., Xu, J., Zhang, Y., and Zhou, Y. (2023). Four-Dimensional Printing and Shape Memory Materials in Bone Tissue Engineering. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010814"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s41205-025-00288-5","article-title":"3D printed polymers that mimic the mechanical properties of atherosclerotic blood vessels for training models: The advantageous degradation induced by UV radiation and hydrolysis","volume":"11","author":"Henriques","year":"2025","journal-title":"3D Print. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"100020","article-title":"3D Printing of Biodegradable Polymer Vascular Stents: A Review","volume":"1","author":"Hua","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Mech. Eng. Addit. Manuf. Front."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.2016.815","article-title":"Histo-anatomic 3D printing of dental structures","volume":"221","author":"Schweiger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.4c02802","article-title":"Supramolecular chemistry empowers Vat photopolymerization mediated DLP-3D printing of PVA-MA-AA resin for pH-responsive drug delivery applications","volume":"37","author":"Satpute","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.5301\/IJAO.2011.6413","article-title":"Demonstrating the influence of water on shape-memory polymer networks based on poly[(rac-lactide)-co-glycolide] segments in vitro","volume":"34","author":"Pierce","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Organs"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2024.111241","article-title":"A 3D printable gelatin methacryloyl\/chitosan hydrogel assembled with conductive PEDOT for neural tissue engineering","volume":"273","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2025.04.439","article-title":"DLP-based 3D printing of a perspective biomedical allograft material sourced from natural tissues","volume":"51","author":"Chugunov","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alparslan, C., and Bayraktar, \u015e. (2025). Advances in Digital Light Processing (DLP) Bioprinting: A Review of Biomaterials and Its Applications, Innovations, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17091287"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pugliese, R., and Regondi, S. (2022). Artificial Intelligence-Empowered 3D and 4D Printing Technologies toward Smarter Biomedical Materials and Approaches. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14142794"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"030801","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4063684","article-title":"Perspective: Machine Learning in Design for 3D\/4D Printing","volume":"91","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2020.123351","article-title":"Machine learning assisted discovery of new thermoset shape memory polymers based on a small training dataset","volume":"214","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2413695","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202413695","article-title":"Machine Learning in Polymer Research","volume":"37","author":"Ge","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"(2009). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 5: Tests for In Vitro Cytotoxicity (Standard No. ISO 10993-5:2009)."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahi, K., and Ramachandran, V. (2022). Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Shape Memory Polymers Programmed below Glass Transition Temperature. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14132753"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1002\/polb.23981","article-title":"A predictive parameter for the shape memory behavior of thermoplastic polymers","volume":"54","author":"Xiao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"Dutta, R., Renshaw, D., Yin, H., and Liang, D. (2025, August 15). Applying Vision Based Predictive Modelling for Rapid Characterization of Shape Memory Polymers. Available online: http:\/\/ceur-ws.org."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s12289-024-01854-8","article-title":"Machine learning in polymer additive manufacturing: A review","volume":"17","author":"Nikooharf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Mater. Form."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2023.100792","article-title":"Application of artificial intelligence in 3D printing physical organ models","volume":"23","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalilayeva, A., Zhumashev, D., Wei, D., Perveen, A., and Talamona, D. (2024). Investigation of Stereolithography Additively Manufactured Components for Deviations in Dimensional and Geometrical Features. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16233311"},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"Jain, B., Singh, J., and Mamodiya, U. (2025, August 15). Improving Polymer Composite Properties Through Reinforcement Learning Guided Prototyping A Novel Approach for Material Engineering. Available online: https:\/\/journals.stmjournals.com\/jopc\/article=2024\/view=156890."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2022.105257","article-title":"Online reinforcement learning for the shape morphing adaptive control of 4D printed shape memory polymer","volume":"126","author":"Ji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2103","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-025-16382-1","article-title":"Defect detection in 3D printing: A review of image processing and machine vision techniques","volume":"140","author":"Armin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paraskevoudis, K., Karayannis, P., and Koumoulos, E.P. (2020). Real-time 3d printing remote defect detection (Stringing) with computer vision and artificial intelligence. Processes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr8111464"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400102","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202400102","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence-Augmented Additive Manufacturing: Insights on Closed-Loop 3D Printing","volume":"6","author":"Sani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1038\/s44172-024-00302-4","article-title":"Towards industry-ready additive manufacturing: AI-enabled closed-loop control for 3D melt electrowriting","volume":"3","author":"Mieszczanek","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Eng."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"Margadji, C., Kuswoyo, A., and Pattinson, S.W. (2025, August 15). Regularized Interpolation in 4D Neural Fields Enables Optimization of 3D Printed Geometries. Available online: http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2502.01517."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"Mensch, C., Swaminathan, A., and Sha, Z. (2024, January 12\u201314). A Real-Time Monitoring Framework for Cooperative 3D Printing. Proceedings of the 35th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"27","article-title":"Advancing intelligent additive manufacturing: Machine learning approaches for process optimization and quality control","volume":"2","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. AI Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2017.02.068","article-title":"A review of 4D printing","volume":"122","author":"Momeni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"116","article-title":"4D printing: Multi-material shape change","volume":"84","author":"Tibbits","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Des."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2017.06.011","article-title":"Shape memory effect in 3D-printed scaffolds for self-fitting implants","volume":"93","author":"Senatov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2020.12.042","article-title":"4D Printing of shape-memory polymeric scaffolds for adaptive biomedical implantation","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41205-016-0005-9","article-title":"Additively manufactured medical products\u2014The FDA perspective","volume":"2","author":"Coburn","year":"2016","journal-title":"3D Print. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3388","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200904447","article-title":"Multifunctional Shape-Memory Polymers","volume":"22","author":"Behl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2014.0001","article-title":"Soft Robotics Technologies to Address Shortcomings in Today\u2019s Minimally Invasive Surgery: The STIFF-FLOP Approach","volume":"1","author":"Cianchetti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s40964-024-00670-5","article-title":"Fatigue behavior of 4D printed materials: A review","volume":"10","author":"Hossain","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prog. Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadl4387","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adl4387","article-title":"Reconfigurable 4D printing via mechanically robust covalent adaptable network shape memory polymer","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1557\/s43579-021-00038-8","article-title":"3D printing of biomedically relevant polymer materials and biocompatibility","volume":"11","author":"Agueda","year":"2021","journal-title":"MRS Commun."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.200700184","article-title":"Deformation limits in shape-memory polymers","volume":"10","author":"Yakacki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reactfunctpolym.2022.105374","article-title":"4D bioprinting of smart polymers for biomedical applications: Recent progress, challenges, and future perspectives","volume":"179","author":"Arif","year":"2022","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_150","unstructured":"(2014). Guide for Evaluating Mechanical Properties of Metal Materials Made via Additive Manufacturing Processes, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.877113","article-title":"Inductively Heated Shape Memory Polymer for the Magnetic Actuation of Medical Devices","volume":"53","author":"Buckley","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.01.030","article-title":"Unconstrained recovery characterization of shape-memory polymer networks for cardiovascular applications","volume":"28","author":"Yakacki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600331","DOI":"10.1002\/mame.201600331","article-title":"Sterilization of Thiol-ene\/Acrylate Based Shape Memory Polymers for Biomedical Applications","volume":"302","author":"Ecker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Macromol. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015010","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-6041\/3\/1\/015010","article-title":"Cytotoxicity and thermomechanical behavior of biomedical shape-memory polymer networks post-sterilization","volume":"3","author":"Yakacki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mubarak, M.T., Ozsahin, I., and Ozsahin, D.U. (April, January 26). Evaluation of Sterilization Methods for Medical Devices. Proceedings of the 2019 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences, ASET 2019, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASET.2019.8714223"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernhardt, A., Wehrl, M., Paul, B., Hochmuth, T., Schumacher, M., Sch\u00fctz, K., and Gelinsky, M. (2015). Improved sterilization of sensitive biomaterials with supercritical carbon dioxide at low temperature. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0129205"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.35205","article-title":"Sterilization effects on poly(glycerol dodecanedioate): A biodegradable shape memory elastomer for biomedical applications","volume":"111","author":"Ramaraju","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amza, C.G., Zapciu, A., Baciu, F., Vasile, M.I., and Popescu, D. (2021). Aging of 3d printed polymers under sterilizing uv-c radiation. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13244467"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cegh.2019.08.002","article-title":"3D printed medical parts with different materials using additive manufacturing","volume":"8","author":"Haleem","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2891","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.36478","article-title":"In vitro compatibility testing of thiol-ene\/acrylate-based shape memory polymers for use in implantable neural interfaces","volume":"106","author":"Black","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosseini, S.M., Rihani, R., Batchelor, B., Stiller, A.M., Pancrazio, J.J., Voit, W.E., and Ecker, M. (2018). Softening shape memory polymer substrates for bioelectronic devices with improved hydrolytic stability. Front. Mater., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2018.00066"},{"key":"ref_162","unstructured":"(2019). Packaging for Terminally Sterilized Medical Devices\u2014Part 2: Validation Requirements for Forming, Sealing and Assembly Processes (Standard No. ISO 11607-2:2019)."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J., and Kang, S.-K. (2021). Principles for controlling the shape recovery and degradation behavior of biodegradable shape-memory polymers in biomedical applications. Micromachines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi12070757"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015015","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-605X\/aca4b2","article-title":"Effects of Sterilization Methods on Gelatin Methacryloyl Hydrogel Properties and Macrophage Gene Expression in Vitro","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2012.06.001","article-title":"Recent advances in shape\u2013memory polymers: Structure, mechanism, functionality, modeling and applications","volume":"37","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzwonkowska-Zarzycka, M., and Sionkowska, A. (2024). Photoinitiators for Medical Applications\u2014The Latest Advances. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29163898"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8003","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.9b02115","article-title":"4D-Printed Dynamic Materials in Biomedical Applications: Chemistry, Challenges, and Their Future Perspectives in the Clinical Sector","volume":"63","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_168","unstructured":"(2014). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 3: Tests for Genotoxicity, Carcinogenicity and Reproductive Toxicity (Standard No. ISO 10993-3:2014)."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402301","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202402301","article-title":"4D Printing for Biomedical Applications","volume":"36","author":"Yarali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaukat, U., Rossegger, E., and Schl\u00f6gl, S. (2022). A Review of Multi-Material 3D Printing of Functional Materials via Vat Photopolymerization. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14122449"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pisani, S., Genta, I., Modena, T., Dorati, R., Benazzo, M., and Conti, B. (2022). Shape-Memory Polymers Hallmarks and Their Biomedical Applications in the Form of Nanofibers. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031290"},{"key":"ref_172","first-page":"240","article-title":"Recent advances in shape memory polymers for biomedical applications: Bridging macro- and micro-scale effects","volume":"6","author":"You","year":"2025","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Med."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2334","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.37216","article-title":"Intrinsic osteoinductivity of PCL-DA\/PLLA semi-IPN shape memory polymer scaffolds","volume":"109","author":"Arabiyat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2022.100368","article-title":"Advances in the development of biodegradable coronary stents: A translational perspective","volume":"16","author":"Zong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40923","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c07436","article-title":"4D Printed Shape-Memory Elastomer for Thermally Programmable Soft Actuators","volume":"15","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2400587","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.202400587","article-title":"Bioprinting of GelMA\/PEGDA Hybrid Bioinks for SH-SY5Y Cell Encapsulation: Role of Molecular Weight and Concentration","volume":"25","author":"Yue","year":"2025","journal-title":"Macromol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-matsci-082908-145419","article-title":"Shape memory polymer research","volume":"39","author":"Mather","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lerouge, S., and Simmons, A. (2012). Sterilisation of Biomaterials and Medical Devices, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857096265"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKeen, L.W. (2014). Plastics Used in Medical Devices. Handbook of Polymer Applications in Medicine and Medical Devices, Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-22805-3.00003-7"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hakkarainen, M. (2002). Aliphatic Polyesters: Abiotic and Biotic Degradation and Degradation Products. Degradable Aliphatic Polyesters, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45734-8_4"},{"key":"ref_181","unstructured":"(2019). Packaging for Terminally Sterilized Medical Devices\u2014Part 1: Requirements for Materials, Sterile Barrier Systems and Packaging Systems (Standard No. ISO 11607-1:2019)."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3841.2008.00933.x","article-title":"Scientific status summary. Innovative food packaging solutions","volume":"73","author":"Brody","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yam, K.L. (2012). Emerging Food Packaging Technologies: Principles and Practice, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857095664"},{"key":"ref_184","unstructured":"CDRH (2025, August 19). Technical Considerations for Additive Manufactured Medical Devices. Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/technical-considerations-additive-manufactured-medical-devices."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1111\/cts.12315","article-title":"Regulatory Considerations in the Design and Manufacturing of Implantable 3D-Printed Medical Devices","volume":"8","author":"Morrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13036-015-0001-4","article-title":"Recent advances in 3D printing of biomaterials","volume":"9","author":"Chia","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2017.06.005","article-title":"4D printing of polymeric materials for tissue and organ regeneration","volume":"20","author":"Miao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.04.050","article-title":"A review on stereolithography and its applications in biomedical engineering","volume":"31","author":"Melchels","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2016.170","article-title":"Applications of 3D printing in cardiovascular diseases","volume":"13","author":"Giannopoulos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_190","unstructured":"(2016). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 6: Tests for Local Effects After Implantation (Standard No. ISO 10993-6:2016)."},{"key":"ref_191","unstructured":"(2017). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 11: Tests for Systemic Toxicity (Standard No. ISO 10993-11:2017)."},{"key":"ref_192","unstructured":"(2025, August 15). Use of International Standard ISO 10993-1, Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 1: Evaluation and Testing Within a Risk Management Process. Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/142959\/download."},{"key":"ref_193","unstructured":"(2016). Medical Devices\u2014Quality Management Systems\u2014Requirements for Regulatory Purposes (Standard No. ISO 13485:2016)."},{"key":"ref_194","unstructured":"CDRH (2025, August 19). Postmarket Surveillance Under Section 522 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act\u2014Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/postmarket-surveillance-under-section-522-federal-food-drug-and-cosmetic-act."},{"key":"ref_195","unstructured":"(2025, August 10). Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses. Available online: www.thingiverse.com."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022002","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ab5158","article-title":"The bioprinting roadmap","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_197","unstructured":"Therapeutic Goods Administration (2025, August 19). Classification of Active Medical Devices (Including Software-Based Medical Devices) Industry Guidance; Therapeutic Goods Administration: Woden Australia, 2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.tga.gov.au\/sites\/default\/files\/classification-of-active-medical-devices-including-software-based-medical-devices.pdf."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32294","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c04569","article-title":"Application of Shape Memory and Self-Healable Polymers\/Composites in the Biomedical Field: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Tadge","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Omega"}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/1\/24\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]],"date-time":"2025-12-27T05:14:38Z","timestamp":1766812478000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/1\/24"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]]},"references-count":198,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["polym18010024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym18010024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]]}}}