{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T21:07:49Z","timestamp":1784840869678,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52578543"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52578543"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The reliability of solid rocket motors depends primarily on the structural integrity of their propellants. Internal cavity defects in the widely used hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) propellant, formed during manufacturing and service, significantly degrade its mechanical properties and compromise motor safety. This study developed a constitutive model for HTPB propellant based on the generalized incremental stress\u2013strain damage model (GISSMO). The validity of the constitutive model was verified through uniaxial tensile tests conducted at various tensile rates. Based on this constitutive model, numerical simulations were performed to examine the effects of initial modulus, impact rate, and cavity confining pressure on the failure modes of propellants containing cavities with radii from 40 to 100 mm. The results show that the simulation\u2019s force\u2013displacement curve agrees well with the test. The simulation accurately captures the propellant\u2019s transition from elastic\u2013plastic plateau at low rates to elastic response at high rates. The prediction error for the maximum tensile force is less than 5%. For cavities of 80 mm and 100 mm, local stress concentration causes damage to the inner wall, followed by rapid cavity extrusion, collapse, and possible cross-shaped matrix fracture. However, cavities of 40 mm and 60 mm show greater stability, experiencing only volume compression, which rarely causes overall damage. When the propellant\u2019s initial modulus is higher than 24 MPa, damage propagation in large cavities over 80 mm is suppressed. A low modulus worsens structural deformation. At low impact velocity, cavity compression is significant, and the structure remains conformal. At high impact velocity (4000 MPa\/s), the cavity stays conformal, the matrix collapses, and the damage value decreases. For 60 mm cavities, damage is localized, and the overall structure is most stable within a confining pressure of 5 to 9.5 MPa. This study clarifies the interaction between engineering parameters and cavity size, providing a basis for optimizing the safety of the propellant structure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18030404","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T09:02:01Z","timestamp":1770195721000},"page":"404","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Numerical Simulation of Failure Modes of Solid Propellants with Internal Cavities Under Various Loading Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Kai","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Graduate College for Elite Engineers, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"},{"name":"The Institute of Xi\u2019an Areospace Solid Propusion Technology, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2202-7541","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qingchun","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Astronautics, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianru","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Academy of Aerospace Solid Propulsion Technology, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5645-734X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2025.01.027","article-title":"Comparative study on mechanical properties and combustion characteristics of additive manufacturing\/casting composite solid propellants","volume":"229","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lajoie, J.A., Jones, B., Lawrence, A.R., Barkley, S.J., and Sippel, T.R. 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