{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T19:12:42Z","timestamp":1785179562913,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771545600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ARC Future Fellowship","award":["FT190100819"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FT190100819"]}]},{"name":"Australian National University Futures Scheme"},{"name":"ANU School of Science Research Pilot grant"},{"name":"New South Wales Space Research Network (SRN) Research Pilot grant","award":["SRN-PILOT-2023\u201309"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SRN-PILOT-2023\u201309"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Atomic oxygen in low Earth orbit erodes polyimide, increasing surface roughness and degrading performance. The reactive species scission polymer chains and remove surface material, exposing fresh sites that accelerate further attack and disrupt thermal, electrical, and mechanical functions. In this paper, we evaluate nanoscale reinforcements of polyimide with graphene and metal oxides under controlled atomic oxygen exposure equivalent to 145 days at a 550 km orbit. Graphene with a thickness of few nanometers and particle size less than 2 \u00b5m, and metal oxides zirconia, zinc oxide, and titania with particle size less than 100 nm were investigated. Hybrids containing graphene plus metal oxide at a 1:1 ratio and a total loading of 0.75 wt% increased roughness relative to neat polyimide, with graphene-zirconia showing a rise of +121 percent, graphene-zinc oxide +10 percent, and graphene\u2013titania +20 percent. The behavior is consistent with agglomeration, incomplete dispersion, and interfacial mismatch that hinder uniform blocking of atomic oxygen and limit formation of protective oxygenated groups. In contrast, single-filler composites at 0.75 wt% reduced average roughness, with graphene lowering Sa by about 59 percent, zirconia by about 51%, titania by about 47%, and zinc oxide by about 47%. Varying graphene loading from 0.25 to 0.75 wt% diminished erosive features at the higher end, but atomic force microscopy revealed isolated tall peaks at 0.75 wt%, indicating localized restacking or agglomeration. Mechanical testing of graphene-reinforced coatings on fiberglass showed a similar trade-off, with tensile strength around 23 MPa and peak load greater than 50 N at 0.5 wt% compared to about 21 MPa and 40 N at 0.75 wt%, while strain at break remained comparable. These results define practical limits for nanoparticle reinforcement in polyimide, linking filler identity, loading, and dispersion quality to atomic oxygen response and sustained function in LEO.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18040522","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T13:08:23Z","timestamp":1771592903000},"page":"522","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Polyimide Reinforced with Graphene\/Metal Oxide Nanocomposites: Surface Degradation Study Under Atomic Oxygen"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Xianbang","family":"Zeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Priyanka","family":"Prakash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sahar","family":"Hosseini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7804-0104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahdiar","family":"Taheri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0459-5964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joice","family":"Mathew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, ANU College of Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eduardo","family":"Trifoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, ANU College of Science, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8606-6195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Levchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Plasma Sources and Application Centre, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"},{"name":"Dipartimento di Fisica \"Giuseppe Occhialini\", Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 3, I20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janith","family":"Weerasinghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karthika","family":"Prasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katia","family":"Alexander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, ANU College of Systems and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"De Groh, K.K., and Banks, B.A. (2019). 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