{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T19:22:59Z","timestamp":1792092179710,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,8]],"date-time":"2026-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772928000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study develops and assesses sustainable polyvinyl chloride (PVC) composites reinforced with agro-industrial waste fillers, integrating an ontology-based lifecycle assessment (LCA) framework to enhance sustainability evaluation. Agro-waste reinforcements, including rice husk ash (RHA), coir, bamboo fibre, and wood flour, were examined for their capacity to improve the mechanical and environmental performance of PVC and to advance circular economy objectives. Empirical data from UK PVC window manufacturing were integrated with Granta EduPack, Eco Design, Eco Audit, OpenLCA, and Prot\u00e9g\u00e9 within a multi-layered semantic pipeline that links materials, processes, and environmental indicators. The agro-filler composites exhibited lower embodied energy and CO2 emissions than glass fibre systems, with the PVC + 30% wood flour formulation achieving the highest efficiency. The ontology framework, comprising 25 classes, 7 object properties, 26 individuals, 16 data properties, and 218 axioms (generated automatically by Prot\u00e9g\u00e9\u2019s metrics feature and verified with the Pellet reasoner), ensured semantic interoperability and consistent validation across datasets, enabling transparent and traceable sustainability analysis. Overall, coupling industrial data with digital LCA and ontology reasoning provides a reproducible pathway toward net zero-aligned, sustainable PVC composite manufacturing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18050658","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T13:27:18Z","timestamp":1773062838000},"page":"658","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Investigation on Ontology-Driven Semantic Simulation of PVC Composite Sustainable Manufacturing: Lifecycle Assessment Approach and Industrial Case Study with Reinforced Agro-Industrial Waste Fillers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5328-0135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander Chinaka","family":"Chidara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Gallear","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brunel Business School, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1177\/0731684412458553","article-title":"Natural Fiber Reinforced Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Composites: A Review","volume":"32","author":"Khalil","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Reinf. Plast. Compos."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chidara, A., Cheng, K., and Gallear, D. (2025). Engineering Innovations for Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Recycling: A Systematic Review of Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions in Circular Economy Integration. Machines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines13050362"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Y., Han, M., Gu, D., Bi, Z., Gu, N., Hu, T., Li, G., Zhang, N., and Lu, J. (2024). PVC Dechlorination for Facilitating Plastic Chemical Recycling: A Systematic literature review of technical advances, modeling and assessment. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16198331"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1021\/cen-09739-cover","article-title":"Plastic has a problem; is chemistry the solution?","volume":"97","author":"Tullo","year":"2019","journal-title":"CEN Glob. Enterp."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.09.007","article-title":"A review on circular economy: The expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems","volume":"114","author":"Ghisellini","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hauschild, M., Rosenbaum, R., and Olsen, S. (2018). Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Theory and Practice, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-56475-3"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2011.01.017","article-title":"Green composites: A brief review","volume":"42","author":"Mantia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2015.08.038","article-title":"A review of recent developments in natural fibre composites and their mechanical performance","volume":"83","author":"Pickering","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2012.04.003","article-title":"Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers: 2000\u20132010","volume":"37","author":"Faruk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501471","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/501471","article-title":"Rice Husk Filled Polymer Composites","volume":"2015","author":"Arjmandi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado-S\u00e1nchez, C., Tenorio-Alfonso, A., Cort\u00e9s-Trivi\u00f1o, E., Borrero-L\u00f3pez, A., and Valencia, C. (2022). Development of Bio-Based Materials: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14173599"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.6060\/ivkkt.20216404.6293","article-title":"Polymer Biocomposites Based on Agro Waste: Part I. Source, Classification, Chemical Composition and Treatment Methods of Lignocellulosic Natural Fibers","volume":"64","author":"Arzumanova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Izv. Vyss. Uchebnykh Zaved. Khimiya Khimicheskaya Tekhnologiya"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.47514\/phyaccess.2023.3.1.010","article-title":"Dielectric Application of Agro-Waste Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Review","volume":"3","author":"Iliyasu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, J., Wang, Y., Qian, Y., Guo, J., Lu, J., and Yang, W. (2024). Surface Modification of Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene and Applications: A Review. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16233431"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spc.2024.07.005","article-title":"Quality assessment of life cycle inventory data for fibre-reinforced polymer composite materials","volume":"49","author":"Moutik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustain. Prod. Consum."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dissanayake, N. (2022). Assessment of Data Quality in Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) for Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites, National Physical Laboratory (NPL).","DOI":"10.47120\/npl.MAT106"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128608","article-title":"Materials selection of reinforced sustainable composites by recycling waste plastics and agro-waste: An integrated multi-criteria decision making approach","volume":"348","author":"Soni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chidara, A., Cheng, K., and Gallear, D. (2025). Ontology-Based Modelling and Analysis of Sustainable Polymer Systems: PVC Comparative Polymer and Implementation Perspectives. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17192612"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumbasaroglu, H., and Kumbasaroglu, A. (2024). Applicability of Agro-Waste materials in structural Systems for building Construction: A scoping review. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15010071"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1179\/174328905X55461","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of PVC in product optimisation and green procurement\u2014Fact-based decisions towards sustainable solutions","volume":"34","author":"Baitz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Plast. Rubber Compos. Macromol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziemi\u0144ska-Stolarska, A., Sobulska, M., Pietrzak, M., and Zbici\u0144ski, I. (2024). Application of Life Cycle Assessment to Analysis of Fibre Composite Manufacturing Technologies in Shipyards Industry. Processes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr12030461"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.09.024","article-title":"Investigation of the process energy demand in polymer extrusion: A brief review and an experimental study","volume":"136","author":"Abeykoon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"e00782","article-title":"The influence of material properties and process parameters on energy consumption during extrusion of flexible PVC","volume":"39","author":"Bovo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2012.12.005","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of recycling PVC window frames","volume":"71","author":"Stichnothe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.132624","article-title":"Environmental and cost life-cycle approach to support selection of windows in early stages of building design","volume":"363","author":"Saadatian","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200258","DOI":"10.1002\/adsu.202200258","article-title":"Sustainable Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A review","volume":"6","author":"Maiti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sustain. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16878132241286020","DOI":"10.1177\/16878132241286020","article-title":"Environmental Behaviour of Synthetic and Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites: A Review","volume":"16","author":"Munimathan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1080\/19397038.2020.1802623","article-title":"State of art review on Life Cycle Assessment of polymers","volume":"13","author":"Ramesh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (Standard No. ISO 14040:2006)."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (Standard No. ISO 14044:2006)."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"GreenDelta (2023). openLCA, Version 2.0.4; [Computer Software], GreenDelta GmbH. Available online: http:\/\/www.openlca.org."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heijungs, R. (2024). Probability, Statistics and Life Cycle Assessment: Guidance for Dealing with Uncertainty and Sensitivity, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-49317-1"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-018-1477-1","article-title":"How to treat uncertainties in life cycle assessment studies?","volume":"24","author":"Igos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14176","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b04634","article-title":"Comparison of Asian Aquaculture Products by Use of Statistically Supported Life Cycle Assessment","volume":"49","author":"Henriksson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02979835","article-title":"Application of uncertainty and variability in LCA\u2014Part I: A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment","volume":"3","author":"Huijbregts","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"ANSYS Inc. (2024). Granta EduPack 2024\u2014Material Universe, ANSYS Inc.. Available online: https:\/\/www.ansys.com\/products\/materials\/granta-edupack."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/5\/658\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T05:13:38Z","timestamp":1773292418000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/5\/658"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,8]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["polym18050658"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym18050658","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,8]]}}}