{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T11:44:59Z","timestamp":1785498299899,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775606400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An efficient bacteriophage delivery system needs to be developed to overcome the challenges associated with phage instability, rapid diffusion, and loss of infectivity at the infection site. Hydrogels have been found to be potential carriers. Hydrogels have emerged as promising carriers due to their biocompatibility, tunable physicochemical properties and capacity for controlled release. However, the molecular factors that regulate phage\u2013hydrogel interactions remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed an in silico framework combining molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, MM\/PBSA binding energy calculations, machine learning-based adhesion prediction, and diffusion modeling to explore phage\u2013hydrogel interactions at the molecular level. Surface-exposed bacteriophage proteins, such as capsid and tail proteins, were evaluated against eight different hydrogel polymers. Binding site analysis revealed the presence of multiple solvent-accessible pockets that can interact with the polymer. Docking studies showed favorable and stable interactions, with hyaluronic acid showing strong binding affinity to multiple phage proteins (\u22125.5 to \u22125.7 kcal\/mol) and GelMA showing high affinity to the capsid gp10 protein (\u22125.6 kcal\/mol). The integrity of the structural complexes was further confirmed by 100 ns MD simulations, stable RMSD and RMSF trajectories, compact structural conformations, and favorable MM\/PBSA binding energies. Machine learning classification successfully differentiated high- and low-adhesion systems and identified hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions as key determinants of sustained yet reversible phage retention. Collectively, our findings suggest that the hydrogels enriched with charged and polar functional groups can facilitate stable but non-destructive phage binding, enabling controlled and sustained release. This study provides mechanistic insights into rational hydrogel design for phage delivery systems and highlights the potential of high-throughput computational strategies to accelerate the development of optimized phage therapeutics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18080906","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T09:49:44Z","timestamp":1775641784000},"page":"906","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Molecular Insights into Phage\u2013Hydrogel Polymer Interactions Through Docking, Molecular Dynamics, and Machine Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4938-0553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roba M. S.","family":"Attar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21959, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4661-0149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed A.","family":"Imam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine at Al-Qunfudah, Umm Al-Qura University, Al-Qunfudah 21961, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01867-1","article-title":"Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance 1990\u20132021: A Systematic Analysis with Forecasts to 2050","volume":"404","author":"Naghavi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riaz, S., Latif, S., Quddus, S., Bukhari, N.T., Ali, K., Asghar, S., and Shah, S.M.A. (2025). Role of Biofilm-Forming Bacteria in Chronic Wound Infections and Their Antibiotic Resistance Profiles. J. Med. Health Sci. Rev., 2.","DOI":"10.62019\/adzs3w86"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2025.118502","article-title":"Bacteriophage Antimicrobial Therapy: From Mechanism Exploration to Biomedical Ap-plications","volume":"193","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imj.2025.100168","article-title":"Phage Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Infections in Humans, Animals, and Plants: The Current Status and Future Prospects","volume":"4","author":"Faruk","year":"2025","journal-title":"Infect. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2019.09.062","article-title":"Reprogramming Bacteriophage Host Range through Structure-Guided Design of Chimeric Receptor Binding Proteins","volume":"29","author":"Dunne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2164(10)70007-1","article-title":"Bacteriophage Host Range and Bacterial Resistance","volume":"Volume 70","author":"Hyman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Advances in Applied Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2011.06.009","article-title":"Bacteriophages and Their Genomes","volume":"1","author":"Hatfull","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopes, A., Tavares, P., Petit, M.-A., Gu\u00e9rois, R., and Zinn-Justin, S. (2014). Automated Classification of Tailed Bacteriophages According to Their Neck Organization. BMC Genom., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-15-1027"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B., Du, L., Dong, B., Kou, E., Wang, L., and Zhu, Y. (2024). Current Knowledge and Perspectives of Phage Therapy for Combating Refractory Wound Infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25105465"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70132","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.70132","article-title":"Bioactive Hydrogels (Bio-HyGs): Emerging Trends in Drug Delivery and Wound Healing Applications","volume":"36","author":"Thirumalaivasan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2013.07.006","article-title":"Hydrogel: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications: A Review","volume":"6","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2014.11.024","article-title":"Biomedical Applications of Hydrogels: A Review of Patents and Commercial Products","volume":"65","author":"Khutoryanskiy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16071","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.71","article-title":"Designing Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Delivery","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2025.124564","article-title":"Shikonin Nanoparticle-Reinforced Chitosan\/Scleroglucan Hydrogel for Treating Oral Mucosa Wounds in Diabetes","volume":"373","author":"Ni","year":"2026","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400526","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.202400526","article-title":"A Natural Eumelanin-Assisted Pullulan\/Chitosan Hydrogel for the Management of Diabetic Oral Ulcers","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Macromol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, M., Wang, Y., Zhuang, H., Zhu, Y., Chen, N., and Teng, T. (2024). Insights into the Preparation of and Evaluation of the Bactericidal Effects of Phage-Based Hydrogels. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.2265.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H.Y., Chang, R.Y.K., Morales, S., and Chan, H.-K. (2021). Bacteriophage-Delivering Hydrogels: Current Progress in Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacterial Infection. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10020130"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patpatia, S., Schaedig, E., Dirks, A., Paasonen, L., Skurnik, M., and Kiljunen, S. (2022). Rapid Hydrogel-Based Phage Susceptibility Test for Pathogenic Bacteria. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.1032052"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2296","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867311320180002","article-title":"Protein-Ligand Docking in the New Millennium\u2014A Retrospective of 10 Years in the Field","volume":"20","author":"Sousa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"37","article-title":"Molecular Dynamics Simulations: Advances and Applications","volume":"37","author":"Gelpi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Appl. Bioinform. Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0337-2","article-title":"Machine Learning for Molecular and Materials Science","volume":"559","author":"Butler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2011.10.006","article-title":"Modeling of Diffusion Controlled Drug Delivery","volume":"161","author":"Siepmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1107\/S0907444998009378","article-title":"Protein Data Bank (PDB): Database of Three-Dimensional Structural Information of Biological Macromolecules","volume":"54","author":"Sussman","year":"1998","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D1202","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkv951","article-title":"PubChem Substance and Compound Databases","volume":"44","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4792","DOI":"10.1002\/pro.4792","article-title":"UCSF ChimeraX: Tools for Structure Building and Analysis","volume":"32","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Protein Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1758-2946-4-17","article-title":"Avogadro: An Advanced Semantic Chemical Editor, Visualization, and Analysis Platform","volume":"4","author":"Hanwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cheminform."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W194","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkae415","article-title":"CASTpFold: Computed Atlas of Surface Topography of the Universe of Protein Folds","volume":"52","author":"Ye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.4310\/CIS.241021221101","article-title":"Docking Strategies for Predicting Protein-Ligand Interactions and Their Application to Structure-Based Drug Design","volume":"24","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1002\/prot.22154","article-title":"Improving Accuracy and Efficiency of Blind Protein-Ligand Docking by Focusing on Predicted Binding Sites","volume":"74","author":"Ghersi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proteins"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kondapuram, S.K., Sarvagalla, S., and Coumar, M.S. (2021). Docking-Based Virtual Screening Using PyRx Tool: Autophagy Target Vps34 as a Case Study. Molecular Docking for Computer-Aided Drug Design, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-822312-3.00019-9"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"22","article-title":"Molecular Interaction Analysis and Visualization of Protein-Ligand Docking Using Biovia Discovery Studio Visualizer","volume":"2","author":"Biotek","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Cent. Bank."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1298","DOI":"10.1002\/wcms.1298","article-title":"Using PyMOL as a Platform for Computational Drug Design","volume":"7","author":"Yuan","year":"2017","journal-title":"WIREs Comput. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2025.106635","article-title":"Safety Assessment of Detarium microcarpum Guil. & Perr. (Leguminosae) Root Bark Extract in Rats: Acute, Sub-Acute Toxicity, ADMET, Molecular Docking, and Molecular Dynamics Simulations Approach","volume":"184","author":"Mbock","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/s40203-024-00278-1","article-title":"Investigating the Effect of 1,2-Dibenzoylhydrazine on Staphylococcus aureus Using Integrated Computational Approaches","volume":"12","author":"Oluwafemi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Silico Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-84401-4","article-title":"Comprehensive Pharmacokinetic Profiling and Molecular Docking Analysis of Natural Bioactive Compounds Targeting Oncogenic Biomarkers in Breast Cancer","volume":"15","author":"Othman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, S., Zheng, Z., Rahman, W., Ullah, F., Ullah, A., Iqbal, M.N., Iqbal, N., and Gao, T. (2023). A Computational Approach to Fighting Type 1 Diabetes by Targeting 2C Coxsackie B Virus Protein with Flavonoids. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0290576"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bbab408","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbab408","article-title":"An Overview of Machine Learning Methods for Monotherapy Drug Response Prediction","volume":"23","author":"Firoozbakht","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"69","article-title":"An Analysis of Model Evaluation with Cross-Validation: Techniques, Applications, and Recent Advances","volume":"99","author":"Qiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Econ. Manag. Political Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2012.08.012","article-title":"Higuchi\u2019s Equation and beyond: Overview of the Formulation and Application of a Generalized Model of Drug Release from Polymeric Matrices","volume":"437","author":"Petropoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y.-H., Dharmaraj, T., Chen, Q., Echterhof, A., Manasherob, R., Zhang, L.J., Li, Z., De Leeuw, C., Peterson, N.A., and Chang, T.H.W. (2024). Dosing and Delivery of Bacteriophage Therapy in a Murine Wound Infection Model. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.05.07.593005"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5419874","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/5419874","article-title":"Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria: Their Mechanism of Action and Prophylaxis","volume":"2022","author":"Bharadwaj","year":"2022","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.3.649-659.2001","article-title":"Bacteriophage Therapy","volume":"45","author":"Sulakvelidze","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Du, F., Long, M., and Li, P. (2022). Limitations of Phage Therapy and Corresponding Optimization Strategies: A Review. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27061857"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4827","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00595","article-title":"Hydrogels as a Potential Biomaterial for Multimodal Therapeutic Applications","volume":"21","author":"Kaur","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.07.044","article-title":"Hydrogel Biomaterials: A Smart Future?","volume":"28","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1021\/bm200083n","article-title":"Biopolymer-Based Hydrogels As Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Review","volume":"12","author":"Dubruel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doud, M.B., Robertson, J.M., and Strathdee, S.A. (2025). Optimizing Phage Therapy with Artificial Intelligence: A Perspective. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1611857"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bbad120","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbad120","article-title":"Machine Learning for Synergistic Network Pharmacology: A Comprehensive Overview","volume":"24","author":"Noor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Wang, Y., Deng, W., Xie, J., He, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, J., and Cui, M. (2024). Combining Network Pharmacology, Machine Learning, Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamic to Explore the Mechanism of Chufeng Qingpi Decoction in Treating Schistosomiasis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1453529"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dingding, H., Muhammad, S., Manzoor, I., Ghaffar, S.A., Alodaini, H.A., Moubayed, N.M., Hatamleh, A.A., and Songxiao, X. (2025). Subtractive Proteomics and Reverse-Vaccinology Approaches for Novel Drug Targets and Designing a Chimeric Vaccine against Ruminococcus gnavus Strain RJX1120. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1555741"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghaffar, S.A., Tahir, H., Muhammad, S., Shahid, M., Naqqash, T., Faisal, M., Albekairi, T.H., Alshammari, A., Albekairi, N.A., and Manzoor, I. (2024). Designing of a Multi-Epitopes Based Vaccine against Haemophilius parainfluenzae and Its Validation through Integrated Computational Approaches. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1380732"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghaffar, S.A., Muneer, I., Manzoor, I., Attar, R.M.S., Alzunaidy, N.A., Alharbi, B.F., Almatroudi, A., Alrumaihi, F., Allemailem, K.S., and Qamar, M.T.U. (2025). Graph-Based and Molecular Modeling Approaches to Identify TpiA as a Noval Therapeutic Target in Neisseria meningitidis. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg\u2019s Arch. Pharmacol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-025-04828-y"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ALSamman, M.T., and S\u00e1nchez, J. (2022). Chitosan- and Alginate-Based Hydrogels for the Adsorption of Anionic and Cationic Dyes from Water. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14081498"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segneanu, A.-E., Bejenaru, L.E., Bejenaru, C., Blendea, A., Mogo\u015fanu, G.D., Bi\u0163\u0103, A., and Boia, E.R. (2025). Advancements in Hydrogels: A Comprehensive Review of Natural and Synthetic Innovations for Biomedical Applications. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17152026"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27583-z","article-title":"Resolving the Structure of Phage\u2013Bacteria Interactions in the Context of Natural Diversity","volume":"13","author":"Kauffman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3960","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.2c00801","article-title":"Surface Inactivation of Highly Mutated SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern: Alpha, Delta, and Omicron","volume":"23","author":"Bobrin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16454","DOI":"10.1021\/ja9050873","article-title":"Phage Wrapping with Cationic Polymers Eliminates Nonspecific Binding between M13 Phage and High pI Target Proteins","volume":"131","author":"Lamboy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00830-x","article-title":"Current Hydrogel Advances in Physicochemical and Biological Response-Driven Biomedical Application Diversity","volume":"6","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K.Z., Jeon, J., Jiang, B., Subramani, S.V., Li, J., and Zhang, F. (2023). Protein-Based Hydrogels and Their Biomedical Applications. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28134988"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2682","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CS00955D","article-title":"Adhesive Supramolecular Polymeric Materials Constructed from Macrocycle-Based Host\u2013Guest Interactions","volume":"48","author":"Ji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2794","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.6.2794-2801.2002","article-title":"Reversible and Irreversible Adhesion of Motile Escherichia Coli Cells Analyzed by Total Internal Reflection Aqueous Fluorescence Microscopy","volume":"68","author":"Vigeant","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dannert, C., Stokke, B.T., and Dias, R.S. (2019). Nanoparticle-Hydrogel Composites: From Molecular Interactions to Macroscopic Behavior. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11020275"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200501612","article-title":"Hydrogels in Biology and Medicine: From Molecular Principles to Bionanotechnology","volume":"18","author":"Peppas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9776","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.joc.5c00724","article-title":"Developing a Machine Learning Model for Hydrogen Bond Acceptance Based on Natural Bond Orbital Descriptors","volume":"90","author":"Melo","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2025.114509","article-title":"Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Localized Eradication of Bacterial Biofilms: Advances, Challenges and Future Directions","volume":"390","author":"Andresen","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kheljan, F.S.S., Hesari, F.S., Aminifazl, M., Skurnik, M., Goladze, S., and Zarrini, G. (2023). Design of Phage-Cocktail\u2013Containing Hydrogel for the Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa\u2013Infected Wounds. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15030803"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicolae-Maranciuc, A., and Chicea, D. (2025). Polymeric Systems as Hydrogels and Membranes Containing Silver Nanoparticles for Biomedical and Food Applications: Recent Approaches and Perspectives. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11090699"}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/8\/906\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T10:08:19Z","timestamp":1775642899000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/8\/906"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["polym18080906"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym18080906","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]]}}}