{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T08:22:16Z","timestamp":1787559736474,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787529600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work, a formaldehyde-free bio-based wood adhesive was successfully fabricated using epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) cross-linked with maleic anhydride (MA) and carboxylated lignin sulfonate (CLS). The effect of CLS substitution dosage on the bonding performance was systematically investigated. The results indicated that the dry shear strength and wet shear strength of the adhesive exhibited a typical non-monotonic variation with increasing CLS content, reaching the maximum values of 1.79 MPa and 1.38 MPa, respectively, at a CLS substitution ratio of 40 mol% relative to MA. These mechanical properties fully meet and exceed the requirements of the Chinese national standard for wood adhesives. Orthogonal experiments were further conducted to optimize the hot-pressing process parameters and the optimal conditions were determined as follows: hot-pressing temperature of 130 \u00b0C, pressing time of 10 min, glue spread of 280 g\/m2, and pre-mixing time of 70 min. FTIR, DSC, and TGA characterizations confirmed the complete curing reaction of the adhesive system. The introduced CLS served as both a reactive curing agent and an efficient catalytic component, which effectively reduced the curing temperature, while the incorporation of MA significantly improved the thermal stability of the cured adhesive. This study provides a feasible strategy for the preparation of high-performance, low-cost, and environmentally friendly bio-based wood adhesives.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18172048","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T08:03:41Z","timestamp":1787558621000},"page":"2048","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Fabrication and Characterization of Carboxylated Lignin Sulfonate Modified Epoxidized Soybean Oil Wood Adhesive Cured by Maleic Anhydride"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Liping","family":"An","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Science, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"},{"name":"Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Soil Quality and Nutrient Resource, Hohhot 010018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhigang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Science, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"},{"name":"Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Soil Quality and Nutrient Resource, Hohhot 010018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinran","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Science, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"},{"name":"College of Material Science and Art Design, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s13595-014-0448-3","article-title":"Wood products and green chemistry","volume":"73","author":"Pizzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"36","article-title":"Advances in low formaldehyde release wood adhesives","volume":"29","author":"Gu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bonding"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2019.03.008","article-title":"Lignin utilization: A review of lignin depolymerization from various aspects","volume":"107","author":"Chio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2021.114189","article-title":"Hydrophobic modification of lignin for rubber composites","volume":"174","author":"Shorey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Das, S., Thomas, S., and Das, P.P. (2022). Novel Platforms for Drug Delivery Applications, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., Oh, S., Lee, J., Roh, H.-G., and Park, J. (2016). Changes of lignin molecular structures in a modification of kraft lignin using acid catalyst. Materials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma9080657"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2019.105325","article-title":"Lignin degradation under anaerobic digestion: Influence of lignin modifications-A review","volume":"128","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5169","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.3c00783","article-title":"Lignin Modification for Enhanced Performance of Polymer Composites","volume":"6","author":"Taher","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-019-08075-1","article-title":"Sulfonated kraft lignin addition in urea-formaldehyde resin","volume":"137","author":"Natarelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.135","article-title":"Unexpected role of amphiphilic lignosulfonate to improve the storage stability of urea formaldehyde resin and its application as adhesives","volume":"161","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1080\/00218464.2016.1188284","article-title":"The effect of soda bagasse lignin modified by ionic liquids on properties of the urea-formaldehyde resin as a wood adhesive","volume":"93","author":"Pizzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3360","DOI":"10.1039\/c3gc41384e","article-title":"Self-healable polymer networks based on the cross-linking of epoxidised soybean oil by an aqueous citric acid solution","volume":"15","author":"Altuna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gunstone, F. (2011). Vegetable Oils in Food Technology: Composition, Properties and Uses, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444339925"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8578","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.8b00884","article-title":"Enzymatic epoxidation of high oleic soybean oil","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21700","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.0c04530","article-title":"Kinetics of soybean oil epoxidation in a semibatch reactor","volume":"59","author":"Santacesaria","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1021\/sc500509h","article-title":"Polyurethanes from solvent-free vegetable oil-based polyols","volume":"2","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2015.06.022","article-title":"Recent advances in vegetable oils based environment friendly coatings: A review","volume":"76","author":"Sharmin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1039\/C2GC36715G","article-title":"Bio-based epoxy resin from itaconic acid and its thermosets cured with anhydride and comonomers","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.A.C., Grilo, L.M., Gandini, A., and Lacerda, T.M. (2021). The prospering of macromolecular materials based on plant oils within the blooming field of polymers from renewable resources. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13111722"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7475","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.7b01691","article-title":"Supramolecular polymer nanocomposites derived from plant oils and cellulose nanocrystals","volume":"50","author":"Song","year":"2017","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s11746-009-1514-0","article-title":"Ring-opening polymerization of epoxidized soybean oil","volume":"87","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700009","DOI":"10.1002\/marc.201700009","article-title":"Plant Oil-Derived Epoxy Polymers toward Sustainable Biobased Thermosets","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Macromol. Rapid Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2021.110389","article-title":"Preparation of carboxylated lignin-based epoxy resin with excellent mechanical properties","volume":"150","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2020.107857","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of alkoxy silane modified polyurethane wood adhesive based on epoxidized soybean oil polyester polyol","volume":"187","author":"Dodangeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"105","article-title":"Preparation of epoxidised soybean oil wood adhesive and investigation of its hot pressing process","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"China Fats Oils"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127760","article-title":"Fully bio-based epoxy resins from lignin and epoxidized soybean oil: Rigid-flexible, tunable properties and high lignin content","volume":"254","author":"Xiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1893","DOI":"10.1039\/c0gc00264j","article-title":"Vegetable oil-based polymeric materials: Synthesis, properties, and applications","volume":"12","author":"Xia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44064","DOI":"10.1002\/app.44064","article-title":"Cure-on-demand wood adhesive based on the frontal polymerization of acrylates","volume":"133","author":"Fazende","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700341","DOI":"10.1002\/mame.201700341","article-title":"Carboxylated lignin as an effective cohardener for enhancing strength and toughness of epoxy","volume":"302","author":"Sun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Macromol. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Ren, S.X., Jiang, G.Q., and Qu, H.J. (2008). Experimental Tutorial on Plant Fiber Chemistry, Northeast Forestry University Press."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1080\/01694243.2018.1453025","article-title":"A new environmentally friendly bioadhesive mainly modified by propanetriol","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"54","article-title":"Preparation of peanut protein adhesive modified with glyoxal-urea resin","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"China Fats Oils"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32118","DOI":"10.1039\/D5RA04233J","article-title":"Dual-functionalized lignin as a sustainable modifier for high-performance phenol-formaldehyde adhesives in plywood production","volume":"15","author":"Anter","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hellmayr, R., Bischof, S., W\u00fchl, J., Guebitz, G.M., Nyanhongo, G.S., Schwaiger, N., Liebner, F., and Wimmer, R. (2022). Enzymatic Conversion of Lignosulfonate into Wood Adhesives: A Next Step towards Fully Biobased Composite Materials. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14020259"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5737","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.7.4.5737-5748","article-title":"Preparation and properties of lignin-epoxy resin composite","volume":"7","author":"Yin","year":"2012","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"289","article-title":"Comparative Analysis on the Epoxidation of Soybean Oil using Formic and Acetic Acids","volume":"26","author":"Meadows","year":"2018","journal-title":"Polym. Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wibowo, E.S., and Park, B.-D. (2023). Chemical and Thermal Characteristics of Ion-Exchanged Lignosulfonate. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28062755"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2023.102453","article-title":"FT-IR measurement as a simple tool for following formation of acidic functional groups in maleic-anhydride-containing polymers","volume":"10","author":"Varga","year":"2023","journal-title":"MethodsX"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.6b03879","article-title":"Epoxidized soybean oil-based epoxy blend cured with anhydride-based cross-linker: Thermal and mechanical characterization","volume":"56","author":"Kumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2566","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-022-02585-0","article-title":"Bio-Based Epoxy Resins of Epoxidized Soybean oil Cured with Salicylic acid Loaded with Chitosan: Evaluation of Physical\u2013Chemical Properties","volume":"31","author":"Nepomuceno","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5810","DOI":"10.1021\/am500642n","article-title":"From waste to functional additive: Toughening epoxy resin with lignin","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3363","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.2c00130","article-title":"Cocuring of epoxidized soybean oil-based wood adhesives and the enhanced bonding performance by plasma treatment of wood surfaces","volume":"10","author":"Duan","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-014-4331-0","article-title":"Study of thermal durability properties of tannin\u2013lignosulfonate adhesives","volume":"119","author":"Chupin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52237","DOI":"10.1002\/app.52237","article-title":"Synthesis of eugenol-based monomers for sustainable epoxy thermoplastic polymers","volume":"139","author":"Kouznetsov","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/17\/2048\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T08:08:34Z","timestamp":1787558914000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/17\/2048"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["polym18172048"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym18172048","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]]}}}