{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T09:17:42Z","timestamp":1787735862325,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nanofiltration membranes have emerged as a crucial class of pressure-driven separation materials, positioned between ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis in terms of selectivity, permeance, operating pressure, and energy consumption. Their ability to remove fine contaminants\u2014including multivalent ions, organic micropollutants, dyes, and macromolecules\u2014has made them essential in water and wastewater treatment, pharmaceutical processing, and various industrial applications. In spite of their growing relevance, the performance of polymeric nanofiltration membranes, such as polyamide, polysulfone, polyethersulfone, polyvinylidene fluoride, and polyimide, is still constrained by weak hydrophilicity and a strong susceptibility to fouling, which collectively decrease permeance, increase operational costs, and shorten membrane lifespan. In recent years, substantial research efforts have focused on designing and engineering the surface chemistry and structural characteristics of nanofiltration membranes to improve water permeance, reduce foulant adhesion, and improve long-term stability. This review provides a comprehensive and comparative assessment of the most recent modification techniques applied to polymer-based nanofiltration membranes. Strategies such as polymer blending, nanoparticle incorporation, physical surface coating, plasma treatment, chemical attachment, layer-by-layer assembly, and interfacial polymerization are critically examined with respect to their effectiveness and practical limitations supported by recent research examples. Special attention is given to how these modification methods affect membrane morphology, hydrophilicity, permeance, and antifouling properties. Eventually, the review highlights emerging ideas and forward-looking design directions that may guide the next generation of nanofiltration membranes toward higher efficiency, improved durability, and broader industrial applicability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18172066","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:11:15Z","timestamp":1787731875000},"page":"2066","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Polymeric Nanofiltration Membranes with Enhanced Hydrophilic, Morphological, Transport, and Antifouling Properties\u2014A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5612-3729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Ebrahimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute CARMeN UMR 6064, ENSICAEN, University of Caen Normandy, 6 Bd. du Mar\u00e9chal Juin, 14050 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9088","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-42170-2","article-title":"Redefining water scarcity through the integrated water strategic resilience index amid climate and conflict pressures","volume":"16","author":"Verre","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2026.123708","article-title":"Coupled pollution and water scarcity heighten ecological degradation and social vulnerability in global dryland rivers","volume":"293","author":"Quiroz","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4","DOI":"10.1017\/wat.2024.16","article-title":"Water scarcity: A global hindrance to sustainable development and agricultural production\u2014A critical review of the impacts and adaptation strategies","volume":"3","author":"Biswas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Camb. Prisms Water"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/15569543.2024.2393193","article-title":"Contamination levels of water sources and the associated nitrate health risks to six age groups","volume":"44","author":"Egbueri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Toxin Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1007\/s12403-022-00512-1","article-title":"Water Contamination and Human Health Risks in Pakistan: A Review","volume":"15","author":"Fida","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expo. Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-91838-1.00008-7","article-title":"Challenges of water contamination in urban areas","volume":"Volume 6","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Current Directions in Water Scarcity Research"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscee.2022.100219","article-title":"A review on emerging water contaminants and the application of sustainable removal technologies","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2024.103637","article-title":"A comprehensive review on human health hazards due to groundwater contamination: A global perspective","volume":"135","author":"Rajan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7595","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-58061-3","article-title":"Toxic heavy metal ions contamination in water and their sustainable reduction by eco-friendly methods: Isotherms, thermodynamics and kinetics study","volume":"14","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1007\/s41101-024-00332-1","article-title":"A Review of Assessment Methods for Water Shortage Risk: Trend Analysis, Method Summary, and Future Research Prospects","volume":"10","author":"Qian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water Conserv. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56428","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-024-34932-0","article-title":"Critical review on toxic contaminants in surface water ecosystem: Sources, monitoring, and its impact on human health","volume":"31","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-022-03023-4","article-title":"Intensifying antibacterial and electrochemical behaviors of CuO induced-ion exchange membrane for water treatment","volume":"29","author":"Golshanikia","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1007\/s11581-018-2724-y","article-title":"Improving electrochemical properties of cation exchange membranes by using activated carbon-co-chitosan composite nanoparticles in water deionization","volume":"25","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ionics"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70144","DOI":"10.1002\/apj.70144","article-title":"Sustainable Water Purification Using Green-Synthesized Nanoparticles: A Comparison Between Mono- and Bimetallic Nanoparticle Systems","volume":"21","author":"Vipparla","year":"2026","journal-title":"Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2025.106394","article-title":"Exploring strategies for enhancing photocatalytic activity of SmVO4-based heterojunctions formation for water purification","volume":"178","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biju, A.K., Viswambharan, A., Thomas, J., Thomas, M.E., Dixon, D., and Thomas, S. (2026). Water purification membranes: State of the art, fundamentals, challenges, and opportunities. Membrane Technology for Water Purification, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-32968-5.00008-5"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cep.2019.107594","article-title":"Application of breakthrough curve analysis and response surface methodology for optimization of a hybrid separation system consisting of fixed-bed column adsorption and dead-end depth filtration","volume":"143","author":"Askari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Process.-Process Intensif."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1039\/D4VA00378K","article-title":"Emerging membrane technologies for sustainable water treatment: A review on recent advances","volume":"4","author":"Foorginezhad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18287","DOI":"10.1039\/D6RA00618C","article-title":"Functional roles of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in mixed matrix membrane technology for wastewater treatment: A critical review","volume":"16","author":"Abdulridha","year":"2026","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2026.125273","article-title":"Nanostructured hydrophilic interfaces of PVDF Janus membranes for high salinity water treatment: A combined theoretical and experimental analysis","volume":"746","author":"Hossain","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahimi, M. (2026). Innovative Physical and Chemical Strategies for the Modification and Development of Polymeric Microfiltration Membranes\u2014A Review. Polymers, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18030311"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2026.174981","article-title":"Polymer ultrafiltration membranes with improved morphological, mechanical, transport, and antifouling characteristics\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"534","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1021\/acssusresmgt.5c00633","article-title":"Nanofiltration Membranes in Wastewater Treatment: Performance Comparison and Sustainable Innovations","volume":"3","author":"Rana","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.117588","article-title":"Reverse osmosis-based water treatment for green hydrogen production","volume":"581","author":"Katakam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1007\/s40899-023-00899-y","article-title":"Nanofiltration membranes types and application in water treatment: A review","volume":"9","author":"Maroufi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Jesus, T.A.B., Corr\u00eaa-Filho, L.C., de Araujo, M.C.P., Gomes, F.D.S., Tonon, R.V., and Cabral, L.M.C. (2026). Blackberry Juice Concentrated by Nanofiltration: Characterization, Stability and Application in a Fruit Juice. Membranes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes16020075"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.oprd.3c00470","article-title":"Organic Solvent Nanofiltration in Pharmaceutical Applications","volume":"28","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Org. Process Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2022.103438","article-title":"Nanofiltration membrane with high flux and oil rejection using graphene oxide\/\u03b2-cyclodextrin for produced water reuse","volume":"31","author":"Saleh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Battestini Vives, M., Thuvander, J., Arkell, A., and Lipnizki, F. (2022). Low-Molecular-Weight Lignin Recovery with Nanofiltration in the Kraft Pulping Process. Membranes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes12030310"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2025.119479","article-title":"Highly permeable acid-resistant nanofiltration membranes for metallurgical spent acid treatment: Structure\u2013performance relationships and selective separation mechanisms","volume":"617","author":"Teng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2021.120228","article-title":"Recent advances of loose nanofiltration membranes for dye\/salt separation","volume":"285","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1021\/acsenvironau.4c00061","article-title":"Nanofiltration Membranes for Efficient Lithium Extraction from Salt-Lake Brine: A Critical Review","volume":"5","author":"Yong","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Environ. Au"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s44274-024-00075-9","article-title":"Nanofiltration & reverse osmosis technical assessment for pesticides removal","volume":"2","author":"Sanchis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advmem.2023.100063","article-title":"Polymer membranes for organic solvent nanofiltration: Recent progress, challenges and perspectives","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Membr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2024.122932","article-title":"Micropore engineering of polyamide loose nanofiltration membrane for efficient dye\/salt separation","volume":"705","author":"Ding","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.118167","article-title":"Recent progress in advanced polyamide nanofiltration membranes via interfacial polymerization for desalination and beyond","volume":"592","author":"Di","year":"2024","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400070","DOI":"10.1002\/aesr.202400070","article-title":"Underpinning the Role of Nanofiltration and Other Desalination Technologies for Water Remediation and Brine Valorization: Mechanism and Challenges for Waste-to-Wealth Approach","volume":"5","author":"Kaur","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Sustain. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahimi, M., Kujawski, W., and Fatyeyeva, K. (2022). Fabrication of Polyamide-6 Membranes\u2014The Effect of Gelation Time towards Their Morphological, Physical and Transport Properties. Membranes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes12030315"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.104876","article-title":"Research on the factors influencing nanofiltration membrane fouling and the prediction of membrane fouling","volume":"59","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsoy Altinkaya, S. (2024). A review on microfiltration membranes: Fabrication, physical morphology, and fouling characterization techniques. Front. Membr. Sci. Technol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/frmst.2024.1426145"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eti.2023.103162","article-title":"Recent developments in ultrafiltration membrane technology for the removal of potentially toxic elements, and enhanced antifouling performance: A review","volume":"31","author":"Shoshaa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Technol. Innov."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14908","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e14908","article-title":"Fouling in reverse osmosis membranes: Monitoring, characterization, mitigation strategies and future directions","volume":"9","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18879","DOI":"10.1039\/D4RA01796J","article-title":"Nanomaterials-modified reverse osmosis membranes: A comprehensive review","volume":"14","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.117780","article-title":"Preparation of positively charged nanofiltration membranes: Manipulation of the positive charge","volume":"586","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2021.124720","article-title":"Carbon nanofibers\/chitosan nanocomposite thin film for surface modification of poly(ether sulphone) nanofiltration membrane","volume":"269","author":"Hosseini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mkilima, T., Bazarbayeva, T., Assel, K., Nurmukhanbetova, N., Ostretsova, I., Khamitova, A., Makhanova, S., and Sergazina, S. (2022). Pore Size in the Removal of Phosphorus and Nitrogen from Poultry Slaughterhouse Wastewater Using Polymeric Nanofiltration Membranes. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14182929"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2025.115885","article-title":"A novel tannic acid\/iron\/hydrophilic polymer nanofiltration membrane for small organic pollutant\/salt separation","volume":"13","author":"Long","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.159779","article-title":"Fabrication of low-cost ceramic nanofiltration membrane from natural resources for the removal of cationic and anionic dyes: Experimental and DFT investigations","volume":"505","author":"Rakcho","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2023.125653","article-title":"Mxene-based ceramic nanofiltration membranes for selective separation of primary contaminants in semiconductor wastewater","volume":"331","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advmem.2026.100214","article-title":"Recent advances in polyamide nanofiltration membranes for antibiotic removal","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Membr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1080\/1023666X.2022.2073008","article-title":"Effect of polymer substrate on the performance of thin-film composite nanofiltration membranes","volume":"27","author":"Waisi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Anal. Charact."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2026.174191","article-title":"Experimental and DFT insights into LaCoO3-modified PES Nanofiltration membranes for enhanced removal of dyes and pharmaceuticals","volume":"532","author":"Jayapandi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coco.2025.102507","article-title":"Enhancing the interfacial interactions in PVDF\/COF composite nanofiltration membranes for efficient antibiotic separation","volume":"58","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Compos. Commun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2024.123526","article-title":"Solvent resistant asymmetrical polyimide nanofiltration membranes prepared via combining surface chemical grafting with thermal-induced pore narrowing","volume":"716","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-021-02233-z","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of a Thin-Film Composite Nanofiltration Membrane Based on Polyamide-Cellulose Acetate: Application for Water Purification","volume":"30","author":"Ounifi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2024.105973","article-title":"Titania and zirconia ceramic nanofiltration membrane fabrication by coating method on mullite and mullite-alumina microfiltration supports for industrial wastewater treatment","volume":"17","author":"Fooladi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2022.121945","article-title":"Functionalized boron nitride ceramic nanofiltration membranes for semiconductor wastewater treatment","volume":"300","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2022.122228","article-title":"Ceramic nanofiltration membranes for efficient fouling mitigation through periodic electrolysis","volume":"303","author":"Anis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2023.122401","article-title":"Catalytic pre-coat on ceramic nanofiltration membranes for segregation and Fenton cleaning of high-resistance colloids in direct surface water treatment","volume":"694","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2022.01.032","article-title":"Simultaneous retention of organic and inorganic contaminants by a ceramic nanofiltration membrane for the treatment of semiconductor wastewater","volume":"159","author":"Cha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2024.130002","article-title":"Calcium carbonate precoating\/acid cleaning method for fouling control in ceramic nanofiltration membranes","volume":"356","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2025.119268","article-title":"Fabrication of dual ionic polymer nanofiltration membrane with deposited graphene oxide interlayer for enhanced flux and antifouling properties","volume":"615","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjche.2024.06.032","article-title":"Organic solvent nanofiltration polymeric membranes: Recent progress, applications, challenges, and perspectives","volume":"82","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.117649","article-title":"Advancements in nanofiltration fouling phenomenon: From water treatment to salt lakes environments","volume":"583","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maeda, Y. (2024). Fouling of Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration (NF) Membranes by Low Molecular Weight Organic Compounds (LMWOCs), Part 1: Fundamentals and Mechanism. Membranes, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202409.1618.v1"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2024.122491","article-title":"Membrane fouling in engineering nanofiltration process for drinking water treatment: The spatial and chemical aspects","volume":"695","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2023.104009","article-title":"Separation performance and fouling analyses of nanofiltration membrane for lithium extraction from salt lake brine","volume":"54","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.117607","article-title":"Membrane fouling control and contaminant removal during direct nanofiltration of surface water","volume":"581","author":"Boivin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2024.126466","article-title":"Fabrication of polyethersulfone\/sulfonated polysulfone loose nanofiltration membranes for enhanced selectivity of pharmaceuticals and personal care products and minerals","volume":"337","author":"Cheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paun, G., Neagu, E., Parvulescu, V., Anastasescu, M., Petrescu, S., Albu, C., Nechifor, G., and Radu, G.L. (2022). New Hybrid Nanofiltration Membranes with Enhanced Flux and Separation Performances Based on Polyphenylene Ether-Ether-Sulfone\/Polyacrylonitrile\/SBA-15. Membranes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes12070689"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70032","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.70032","article-title":"Fabrication and Characterization of PPSU\/PES Blend Nanofiltration Membrane via VIPS-NIPS Method for Effective Dye Rejection","volume":"36","author":"Dehban","year":"2025","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-016-2026-5","article-title":"Preparation and Characterization of PES-Blend-Sulfonated PVC Nanofiltration Membranes: Investigation of Polymers Blend Ratio","volume":"41","author":"Bagheripour","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2022.120743","article-title":"Fabrication of sustainable organic solvent nanofiltration membranes using cellulose\u2013chitosan biopolymer blends","volume":"658","author":"Hardian","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.134764","article-title":"Comparison of different cleaning strategies on fouling mitigation in hollow fiber nanofiltration membranes for river water treatment","volume":"380","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2023.110551","article-title":"Osmotic cleaning to control inorganic fouling of nanofiltration membrane for seawater desalination","volume":"11","author":"Guan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2022.103271","article-title":"Effect of chemical cleaning on nanofiltration process in treating surface water","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2023.125815","article-title":"Effect of temperature on organic fouling and cleaning efficiency of nanofiltration membranes for loch water treatment","volume":"332","author":"Hitchin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2024.127219","article-title":"Modification strategies for Ti3C2Tx MXene-based membranes to enhance nanofiltration performance: A review","volume":"344","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2023.116638","article-title":"Fabrication and modification of nanofiltration membranes by solution electrospinning technique: A review of influential factors and applications in water treatment","volume":"558","author":"Behroozi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2803","DOI":"10.1039\/D3EW00266G","article-title":"Surface-modified ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes for the selective removal of heavy metals and inorganic groundwater contaminants: A review","volume":"9","author":"Koli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2024.122740","article-title":"Surface modification of nanofiltration membrane using quaternary diethanolamine for efficient antibiotics\/salt separation","volume":"701","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2282","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46580-6","article-title":"Double charge flips of polyamide membrane by ionic liquid-decoupled bulk and interfacial diffusion for on-demand nanofiltration","volume":"15","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.05.387","article-title":"Polymers blends for the improvement of nanofiltration membranes in wastewater treatment: A short review","volume":"43","author":"Agboola","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2020.25302","article-title":"Modified nanofiltration membrane treatment of saline water: A review","volume":"187","author":"Alsayed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Desalin. Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2021.101470","article-title":"Recent progress of organic solvent nanofiltration membranes","volume":"123","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmoud, A.E.D., and Mostafa, E. (2023). Nanofiltration Membranes for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions: Preparations and Applications. Membranes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes13090789"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.118519","article-title":"Advances in positively charged nanofiltration membranes: Targeted strategies for optimized water treatment","volume":"600","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2025.101589","article-title":"Alkali-resistant nanofiltration membranes: Materials, mechanisms, applications, and perspectives","volume":"157","author":"Nan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2026.01.046","article-title":"Removal of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances by nanofiltration membranes in water and wastewater: A review","volume":"160","author":"Park","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1002\/pol.20250715","article-title":"Nanofiltration Membranes for Li+\/Mg2+ Separation: Materials and Mechanisms","volume":"64","author":"Das","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yahya, A.A., Rashid, K.T., Ghadhban, M.Y., Mousa, N.E., Majdi, H.S., Salih, I.K., and Alsalhy, Q.F. (2021). Removal of 4-Nitrophenol from Aqueous Solution by Using Polyphenylsulfone-Based Blend Membranes: Characterization and Performance. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11030171"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2024.129688","article-title":"Preparation of a high performance PES\/PES-OH Loose nanofiltration membrane based on reactive porogen","volume":"355","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2022.108180","article-title":"High-flux PSF\/PES-COOH hollow fiber loose nanofiltration membrane for high-efficiency dye-salt separation","volume":"10","author":"Yao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batool, M., Shafeeq, A., Haider, B., and Ahmad, N.M. (2021). TiO2 Nanoparticle Filler-Based Mixed-Matrix PES\/CA Nanofiltration Membranes for Enhanced Desalination. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11060433"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.131616","article-title":"Fabrication of highly permeable and anti-fouling performance of Poly(ether ether sulfone) nanofiltration membranes modified with zinc oxide nanoparticles","volume":"286","author":"Purushothaman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, H., Zahid, M., Rehan, Z.A., Rashid, A., Akram, S., Aljohani, M.M.H., Mustafa, S.K., Khalid, T., Abdelsalam, N.R., and Ghareeb, R.Y. (2022). Preparation of Polyvinylidene Fluoride Nano-Filtration Membranes Modified with Functionalized Graphene Oxide for Textile Dye Removal. Membranes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes12020224"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83801-w","article-title":"Green-synthesized silver nanoparticle-enhanced nanofiltration mixed matrix membranes for high-performance water purification","volume":"15","author":"Bashir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, N., Liu, J., Mi, J., Chen, X., Rong, R., Hang, J., and Jiang, Z. (2025). Preparation of Highly Antibacterial MXene Nanofiltration Membranes and Investigation of Their Separation Performance. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17111493"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2019.05.025","article-title":"Mixed matrix PES-based nanofiltration membrane decorated by (Fe3O4\u2013polyvinylpyrrolidone) composite nanoparticles with intensified antifouling and separation characteristics","volume":"147","author":"Hosseini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2021.117520","article-title":"Surface modification of nanofiltration membranes to improve the removal of organic micropollutants: Linking membrane characteristics to solute transmission","volume":"203","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Liu, J., Wang, W., Chen, S., Jia, F., Li, X., Zhao, Y., Zhang, W., Song, D., and Ma, J. (2025). Tailoring the Performance of a Composite PEI Nanofiltration Membrane via Incorporating Activated PDA for Efficient Dye Sieving and Salt Separation. Membranes, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes15030075"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2017.04.002","article-title":"Treatment of textile dyes containing wastewaters with PES\/PVA thin film composite nanofiltration membranes","volume":"183","author":"Babu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2020.118006","article-title":"Spray-coated graphene oxide hollow fibers for nanofiltration","volume":"606","author":"Mahalingam","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Fang, X., Lou, M., Qi, Y., Li, R., Chen, G., Li, Y., Liu, Y., and Li, F. (2021). Construction of Loose Positively Charged NF Membrane by Layer-by-Layer Grafting of Polyphenol and Polyethyleneimine on the PES\/Fe Substrate for Dye\/Salt Separation. Membranes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes11090699"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2022.05.032","article-title":"Anti-fouling nanofiltration membranes based on macromolecule crosslinked polyvinyl alcohol","volume":"112","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, M.J., Nisola, G.M., Seo, D.H., Wang, C., Phuntsho, S., Choo, Y., Chung, W.-J., and Shon, H.K. (2021). Chemically Cross-Linked Graphene Oxide as a Selective Layer on Electrospun Polyvinyl Alcohol Nanofiber Membrane for Nanofiltration Application. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11112867"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.118436","article-title":"Active-passive synergistic alleviation of membrane scaling from groundwater by grafting charged positive monomers on the surface of nanofiltration membranes","volume":"599","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, F., Huang, W., and Mi, Y. (2026). Charge-Tunable Polyelectrolytes Enable High-Performance Layer-by-Layer Nanofiltration Membranes for Heavy Metal Ion Removal. Membranes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes16040130"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2022.115793","article-title":"Layer-by-layer (LBL) hollow fiber nanofiltration membranes for seawater treatment: Ion rejection","volume":"534","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dmitrenko, M., Sushkova, X., Chepeleva, A., Liamin, V., Mikhailovskaya, O., Kuzminova, A., Semenov, K., Ermakov, S., and Penkova, A. (2023). Modification Approaches of Polyphenylene Oxide Membranes to Enhance Nanofiltration Performance. Membranes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes13050534"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baig, U., Waheed, A., Salih, H.A., Matin, A., Alshami, A., and Aljundi, I.H. (2021). Facile Modification of NF Membrane by Multi-Layer Deposition of Polyelectrolytes for Enhanced Fouling Resistance. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13213728"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reactfunctpolym.2022.105329","article-title":"Enhancing the flux and salt rejection of thin-film composite nanofiltration membranes prepared on plasma-treated polyethylene using PVA\/TS-1 composite","volume":"177","author":"Dehghanpour","year":"2022","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1007\/s11814-020-0665-4","article-title":"Development of a highly-permeable thin-film-based nanofiltration membrane by using surface treatment with Air-Ar plasma","volume":"38","author":"Kiamehr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Korean J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2952","DOI":"10.1109\/TPS.2022.3193965","article-title":"Modification of a Highly Permeable Thin-Film-Based Nanofiltration Membrane (PVC) to Increase Efficiency and Separation by Air Plasma Treatment","volume":"50","author":"Kiamehr","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balcik, C., Ozbey-Unal, B., Sahin, B., Keyiko\u011flu, R., and Khataee, A. (2023). Loose Nanofiltration Membrane Incorporating CeZnFe Layered Double Hydroxide with Enhanced Dye\/Salt Separation Performance and Self-Cleaning Ability. Membranes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes13080711"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, W., Liu, C., Yu, T., Xiong, Y., Hong, Z., and Xie, Q. (2020). Constructing Positively Charged Thin-Film Nanocomposite Nanofiltration Membranes with Enhanced Performance. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12112526"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adeniyi, A., Gonzalez-Ortiz, D., Pochat-Bohatier, C., Mbakop, S., and Onyango, M.S. (2022). Preparation of Nanofiltration Membrane Modified with Sawdust-Derived Cellulose Nanocrystals for Removal of Nitrate from Drinking Water. Membranes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes12070670"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Wang, X., Zheng, T., Mo, B., Xu, H., Huang, Y., Wang, J., Gao, C., and Gao, X. (2022). High Flux Nanofiltration Membranes with Double-Walled Carbon Nanotube (DWCNT) as the Interlayer. Membranes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes12101011"}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/17\/2066\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:19:56Z","timestamp":1787732396000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/18\/17\/2066"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["polym18172066"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym18172066","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]]}}}