{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T17:07:16Z","timestamp":1793898436105,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute for Child Health &amp; Human Development","award":["5R01 HD099296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5R01 HD099296"]}]},{"name":"Maternal &amp; Child Health Research Institute","award":["5R01 HD099296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5R01 HD099296"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Psychology International"],"abstract":"<jats:p>From 2020 to 2023, the coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) pandemic exposed children to a variety of adverse childhood events, including parental loss, abuse, and disruption in services, and it exacerbated societal inequities. Studies evaluating the mental health of older children and adolescents reported increases in depression and anxiety symptoms, but no reviews have addressed the effects of the pandemic on preschool children. This systematic review and meta-analysis is the first to explore these effects. The goal was to analyze and synthesize longitudinal cohort studies to determine impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the development and mental health of young children. Searches of multiple databases were performed for studies published between 2018 and 2023 with pre- and post-pandemic evaluations of the mental health or development of preschool children (aged 0\u20136 years) using objective measures and according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Cohen\u2019s d effect sizes were calculated for each study that utilized the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ), or the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Random-effects mixed models combined the estimates of effect sizes to calculate the overall mean effect size. The meta-analyses included 22,348 children from 16 countries. The analyses showed small increases in emotional symptoms and conduct problems, as well as increases in emotional reactivity, anxiety\/depression, withdrawal symptoms, attention problems, and aggressive behaviors. A decrease in fine motor and personal\u2013social skills was noted. Studies not included in these meta-analyses also showed negative effects on language and executive function. This systematic review characterizes the detrimental effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and development of preschool children across the world. Our results suggest the vulnerability of early childhood to pandemic-related disruptions, although the heterogeneity in study design and child characteristics may limit some of these conclusions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/psycholint6040062","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T11:25:33Z","timestamp":1732533933000},"page":"986-1012","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Early Childhood Development and Mental Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Comparative Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1538-1806","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sasha","family":"Alcon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94304, USA"},{"name":"Stanford Child Wellness Lab, Maternal & Child Health Research Institute, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sa","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Quantitative Sciences Unit, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94304, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hong-nei","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Education Librarian, Lane Medical Library, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94304, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cynthia R.","family":"Rovnaghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94304, USA"},{"name":"Stanford Child Wellness Lab, Maternal & Child Health Research Institute, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leni","family":"Truong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford Child Wellness Lab, Maternal & Child Health Research Institute, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordan K. H.","family":"Vedelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford Child Wellness Lab, Maternal & Child Health Research Institute, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Undergraduate Program, Stanford University School of Humanities & Sciences, Stanford, CA 94309, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6498-1483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kanwaljeet J. S.","family":"Anand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94304, USA"},{"name":"Stanford Child Wellness Lab, Maternal & Child Health Research Institute, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94309, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-021-01279-z","article-title":"Challenges for Child Mental Health Raised by School Closure and Home Confinement During the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"23","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001043","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjpo-2021-001043","article-title":"Impact of Lockdown and School Closure on Children\u2019s Health and Well-Being During the First Wave of COVID-19: A Narrative Review","volume":"5","author":"Rajmil","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Paediatr. Open"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1177\/2043610620970552","article-title":"Child care and COVID: Precarious communities in distanced times","volume":"10","author":"Swadener","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Stud. Child."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303545","article-title":"Lifetime Prevalence of Investigating Child Maltreatment Among US Children","volume":"107","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2014.410","article-title":"The prevalence of confirmed maltreatment among US children, 2004 to 2011","volume":"168","author":"Wildeman","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"22","article-title":"The kids aren\u2019t all right","volume":"41","author":"Munsey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Monit. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.2015.0080","article-title":"Primary Care Pediatricians\u2019 Perceived Prevalence and Surveillance of Adverse Childhood Experiences in Low-Income Children","volume":"26","author":"Bright","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260515589568","article-title":"Adverse Childhood Experiences Among Immigrants to the United States","volume":"32","author":"Vaughn","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559516679513","article-title":"Rethinking the measurement of adversity","volume":"22","author":"Mersky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Maltreatment"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheppard, P., Garcia, J.R., and Sear, R. (2014). A not-so-grim tale: How childhood family structure influences reproductive and risk-taking outcomes in a historical U.S. Population. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0089539"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-009-9458-0","article-title":"Parental incarceration and multiple risk experiences: Effects on family dynamics and children\u2019s delinquency","volume":"39","author":"Aaron","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2016.10.006","article-title":"Mental health of adolescents with currently and formerly incarcerated parents","volume":"54","author":"Davis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-017-0798-6","article-title":"Oxytocin and parenting behavior among impoverished mothers with low vs. high early life stress","volume":"21","author":"Julian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2018.08.027","article-title":"Maternal experiences of trauma and hair cortisol in early childhood in a prospective cohort","volume":"98","author":"Slopen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20180023","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-0023","article-title":"Parents\u2019 Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Children\u2019s Behavioral Health Problems","volume":"142","author":"Schickedanz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acap.2017.03.007","article-title":"Responding to ACEs With HOPE: Health Outcomes From Positive Experiences","volume":"17","author":"Sege","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acad. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.3109\/01612840.2012.671441","article-title":"Resilience in family members of persons with autism spectrum disorder: A review of the literature","volume":"33","author":"Bekhet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Issues Ment. Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e937","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-2411","article-title":"Parental psychological well-being and behavioral outcome of very low birth weight infants at 3 years","volume":"129","author":"Huhtala","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2016.0555","article-title":"Parental Mediation Regarding Children\u2019s Smartphone Use: Role of Protection Motivation and Parenting Style","volume":"20","author":"Hwang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000357","article-title":"Parent Perspectives on Their Mobile Technology Use: The Excitement and Exhaustion of Parenting While Connected","volume":"37","author":"Radesky","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2017.06.011","article-title":"Exploring parents\u2019 screen-viewing behaviours and sedentary time in association with their attitudes toward their young child\u2019s screen-viewing","volume":"7","author":"Sebire","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prev. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terras, M.M., and Ramsay, J. (2016). Family Digital Literacy Practices and Children\u2019s Mobile Phone Use. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01957"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1080\/17470919.2015.1087426","article-title":"Social buffering of stress responses in nonhuman primates: Maternal regulation of the development of emotional regulatory brain circuits","volume":"10","author":"Sanchez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1080\/17470919.2016.1149095","article-title":"Social stress buffering by friends in childhood and adolescence: Effects on HPA and oxytocin activity","volume":"12","author":"Doom","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marryat, L., Thompson, L., Minnis, H., and Wilson, P. (2014). Associations between social isolation, pro-social behaviour and emotional development in preschool aged children: A population based survey of kindergarten staff. BMC Psychol., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-014-0044-1"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.98.1.1","article-title":"Peer exclusion and victimization: Processes that mediate the relation between peer group rejection and children\u2019s classroom engagement and achievement?","volume":"98","author":"Buhs","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"2004","article-title":"Children\u2019s Peer Relationships: Longitudinal Prediction of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems from Middle to Late Childhood","volume":"61","author":"Hymel","year":"1990","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2023.106859","article-title":"Prevalence, sociodemographic and household characteristics, and impacts of disrupted child care due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S., April\u2013July 2021","volume":"149","author":"Sappenfield","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2007.01072.x","article-title":"Friendship moderates prospective associations between social isolation and adjustment problems in young children","volume":"78","author":"Laursen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104756","article-title":"Increased proportion of physical child abuse injuries at a level I pediatric trauma center during the Covid-19 pandemic","volume":"116","author":"Kovler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12073","DOI":"10.1002\/jcv2.12073","article-title":"Trajectories of childhood social isolation in a nationally representative cohort: Associations with antecedents and early adulthood outcomes","volume":"2","author":"Thompson","year":"2022","journal-title":"JCPP Adv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2007.00986.x","article-title":"Income Is Not Enough: Incorporating Material Hardship Into Models of Associations With Parenting and Child Development","volume":"78","author":"Gershoff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-4560.2008.00550.x","article-title":"Effects of the Home Learning Environment and Preschool Center Experience upon Literacy and Numeracy Development in Early Primary School","volume":"64","author":"Melhuish","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oppermann, E., Cohen, F., Wolf, K., Burghardt, L., and Anders, Y. (2021). Changes in Parents\u2019 Home Learning Activities With Their Children During the COVID-19 Lockdown\u2014The Role of Parental Stress, Parents\u2019 Self-Efficacy and Social Support. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.682540"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2020.08.008","article-title":"The potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child growth and development: A systematic review","volume":"97","author":"Veloso","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1111\/inm.12992","article-title":"Do Different Adverse Childhood Experiences Lead to Specific Symptoms of Psychosis in Adulthood? A Systematic Review of the Current Literature","volume":"31","author":"Grindey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"27","article-title":"Stressors and Symptoms Associated with a History of Adverse Childhood Experiences among Older Adolescents and Young Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Manitoba, Canada","volume":"43","author":"Salmon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Promot. Chronic Dis. Prev. Can. Res. Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2023.106091","article-title":"Type and Dose-Response Effect of Adverse Childhood Experiences in Predicting Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"139","author":"Tan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2023.106092","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences, mental health, and social functioning: A scoping review of the literature","volume":"139","author":"Tzouvara","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.63.11.1246","article-title":"Exploring risk factors for the emergence of children\u2019s mental health problems","volume":"63","author":"Essex","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (2023, September 15). Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, Available online: https:\/\/www.nhlbi.nih.gov\/health-topics\/study-quality-assessment-tools."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.1186","article-title":"Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis","volume":"21","author":"Higgins","year":"2002","journal-title":"Stat. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.315.7109.629","article-title":"Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test","volume":"315","author":"Egger","year":"1997","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.2307\/2533446","article-title":"Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias","volume":"50","author":"Begg","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.698","article-title":"A Comparison of Methods to Detect Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis","volume":"20","author":"Macaskill","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stat. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x","article-title":"Trim and Fill: A Simple Funnel-Plot-Based Method of Testing and Adjusting for Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis","volume":"56","author":"Duval","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Rendina-Gobioff, G., and Kromrey, J.D. (2023, April 15). Pub_Bias: A Sas \u00ae Macro for Detecting Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/Efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj\/http:\/\/www8.Sas.Com\/Scholars\/Proceedings\/2006\/Posters\/Po04_06.Pdf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1111\/cch.13078","article-title":"Trajectories of child growth, child development, and home child-rearing quality during the Covid pandemic in rural Nepal","volume":"49","author":"Miller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Care Health Dev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-020-01631-3","article-title":"The interplay between mothers\u2019 and children behavioral and psychological factors during COVID-19: An Italian study","volume":"30","author":"Mioni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-021-01925-0","article-title":"Maternal mood moderates the trajectory of emotional and behavioural problems from pre- to during the COVID-19 lockdown in preschool children","volume":"32","author":"Frigerio","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1097\/JXX.0000000000000653","article-title":"The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on infant and toddler development","volume":"34","author":"Imboden","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Am. Assoc. Nurse. Pract."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2241","DOI":"10.1002\/icd.2241","article-title":"Early childhood education and care (ECEC) during COVID-19 boosts growth in language and executive function","volume":"30","author":"Davies","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infant Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Specht, I.O., Rohde, J.F., Nielsen, A.-K., Larsen, S.C., and Heitmann, B.L. (2021). Changes in Emotional-Behavioral Functioning Among Pre-school Children Following the Initial Stage Danish COVID-19 Lockdown and Home Confinement. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.643057"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitzpatrick, C., Harvey, E., Cristini, E., Laurent, A., Lemelin, J.-P., and Garon-Carrier, G. (2022). Is the Association Between Early Childhood Screen Media Use and Effortful Control Bidirectional? A Prospective Study During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.918834"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cantiani, C., Dondena, C., Capelli, E., Riboldi, E.M., Molteni, M., and Riva, V. (2021). Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on the Emotional and Behavioral Profiles of Preschool Italian Children with and without Familial Risk for Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11040477"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.17219\/dmp\/142284","article-title":"Anxiety and harmful oral habits in preschool children during the 2020 first-wave COVID-19 lockdown in Turkey","volume":"58","author":"Kolcakoglu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dent. Med. Probl."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijchp.2022.100327","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic impact on family life and exacerbated emotional and behavioral health among preschool children: A longitudinal study","volume":"22","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22972","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01803-4","article-title":"Change in Japanese children\u2019s 24-hour movement guidelines and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"11","author":"Hyunshik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-022-00954-w","article-title":"Trajectories and Associations Between Maternal Depressive Symptoms, Household Chaos and Children\u2019s Adjustment through the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Four-Wave Longitudinal Study","volume":"51","author":"Egotubov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Child Adolesc. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonso-Mart\u00ednez, A.M., Ram\u00edrez-V\u00e9lez, R., Garc\u00eda-Alonso, Y., Izquierdo, M., and Garc\u00eda-Hermoso, A. (2021). Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, Sleep and Self-Regulation in Spanish Preschoolers during the COVID-19 Lockdown. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18020693"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenter, A., Schickl, M., Sevecke, K., Juen, B., and Exenberger, S. (2022). Children\u2019s Mental Health During the First Two Years of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Burden, Risk Factors and Posttraumatic Growth\u2014A Mixed-Methods Parents\u2019 Perspective. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.901205"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107572","article-title":"Screen media exposure and behavioral adjustment in early childhood during and after COVID-19 home lockdown periods","volume":"140","author":"Shalev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, C.-H., Jiang, L., Chu, L.-T., Zhang, C.-C., Tian, Y., Chen, J.J., and Wang, Y. (2022). Mental health problems of preschool children during the COVID-19 home quarantine: A cross-sectional study in Shanghai, China. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1032244"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2022.07.832","article-title":"Child and Maternal Mental Health Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Longitudinal Social Inequalities in a Brazilian Birth Cohort","volume":"62","author":"Murray","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gulde, M., K\u00f6hler-Dauner, F., Mayer, I., Ziegenhain, U., Fegert, J.M., and Buchheim, A. (2022). Negative effects of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: The interlinking of maternal attachment representation, coping strategies, parental behavior, and the child\u2019s mental health. Front. Pediatr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.939538"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-04944-2","article-title":"COVID-19 school and kindergarten closure relates to children\u2019s social relationships: A longitudinal study in Japan","volume":"12","author":"Hagihara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conti, E., Sgandurra, G., De Nicola, G., Biagioni, T., Boldrini, S., Bonaventura, E., Buchignani, B., Vecchia, S.D., Falcone, F., and Fedi, C. (2020). Behavioural and Emotional Changes during COVID-19 Lockdown in an Italian Paediatric Population with Neurologic and Psychiatric Disorders. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10120918"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-021-00888-9","article-title":"Maternal Mental Health and Child Adjustment Problems in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Families Experiencing Economic Disadvantage","volume":"50","author":"Thompson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Child Adolesc. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604804","DOI":"10.3389\/ijph.2022.1604804","article-title":"The Kids Are Alright (?). Infants\u2019 Development and COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"67","author":"Ferrari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, P., Zhou, F., Guo, Y., Yuan, S., Lin, S., Lu, J., Tu, S., Lu, M., Shen, S., and Guedeney, A. (2021). Association Between the COVID-19 Pandemic and Infant Neurodevelopment: A Comparison Before and During COVID-19. Front. Pediatr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.662165"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2021.12.004","article-title":"Heterogeneity in maternal and child mental health responses to the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"59","author":"Saleem","year":"2022","journal-title":"Early Child. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wermelinger, S., Moersdorf, L., Ammann, S., and Daum, M.M. (2022). Exploring the role of COVID-19 pandemic-related changes in social interactions on preschoolers\u2019 emotion labeling. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.942535"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-021-01924-1","article-title":"Increase in depression and anxiety disorder diagnoses during the COVID-19 pandemic in children and adolescents followed in pediatric practices in Germany","volume":"32","author":"Kostev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000001010","article-title":"Changes in Children\u2019s Behavioral Health and Family Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"43","author":"Hanno","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"1406","article-title":"Emotional status and problem behavior of pre-school children according to the pandemic period and occupational status of the mother","volume":"33","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bussi\u00e8res, E.L., Malboeuf-Hurtubise, C., Meilleur, A., Mastine, T., H\u00e9rault, E., Chadi, N., Mobntreuil, M., G\u00e9n\u00e9reux, M., Camden, C., and PRISME-COVID Team (2021). Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children\u2019s Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.691659"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fmaa122","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/fmaa122","article-title":"Psychological and Behavioral Impact of Lockdown and Quarantine Measures for COVID-19 Pandemic on Children, Adolescents and Caregivers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"67","author":"Panda","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1111\/camh.12453","article-title":"Review: The mental health implications for children and adolescents impacted by infectious outbreaks\u2014A systematic review","volume":"26","author":"Berger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2023.106364","article-title":"The role of stress in the biological embedding of experience","volume":"156","author":"Kumsta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2023.0846","article-title":"Changes in Depression and Anxiety Among Children and Adolescents From Before to During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"177","author":"Madigan","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X21666230810162344","article-title":"Developmental Neuroendocrinology of Early-Life Stress: Impact on Child Development and Behavior","volume":"22","author":"Nicolaides","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e224","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-2662","article-title":"Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health; Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care; Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. Early childhood adversity, toxic stress, and the role of the pediatrician: Translating developmental science into lifelong health","volume":"129","author":"Garner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00041.2006","article-title":"Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain","volume":"87","author":"McEwen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2648","article-title":"Stress Signalling Pathways That Impair Prefrontal Cortex Structure and Function","volume":"10","author":"Arnsten","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2238941","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.38941","article-title":"COVID-19 Pandemic and Infant Neurodevelopmental Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Hessami","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S12","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-2828D","article-title":"Neurodevelopment, Nutrition, and Inflammation: The Evolving Global Child Health Landscape","volume":"139","author":"Bhutta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.155.12.1311","article-title":"Primary care services promoting optimal child development from birth to age 3 years: Review of the literature","volume":"155","author":"Regalado","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Author Unlisted (2007). Center on the Developing Child. A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy, Harvard University."}],"container-title":["Psychology International"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2813-9844\/6\/4\/62\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:39:03Z","timestamp":1760114343000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2813-9844\/6\/4\/62"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["psycholint6040062"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/psycholint6040062","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-9844"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2813-9844","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]}}}