{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T00:49:35Z","timestamp":1774658975729,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,20]],"date-time":"2014-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1408492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Stable nighttime light (NTL) data, derived from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program\u2019s Operational Linescan System (DMSP\/OLS), are typically considered a proxy measure of the dynamics of human settlements and have been extensively used to quantitative estimates of demographic variables, economic activity, and land-use change in previous studies at both regional and global scales. The utility of DMSP data for characterizing spatio-temporal trends in urban development at a local scale, however, has received less attention. In this study, we utilize a time series of DMSP data to examine the spatio-temporal characteristics of urban development in 285 Chinese cities from 1992 to 2009, at both the local and national levels. We compare linear models and piecewise linear models to identify the turning points of nighttime lights and calculate the trends in nighttime light growth at the pixel level. An unsupervised classification is applied to identify the patterns in the nighttime light time series quantitatively. Our results indicate that nighttime light brightness in most areas of China exhibit a positive, multi-stage process over the last two decades; however, the average trends in nighttime light growth differ significantly. Through the piecewise linear model, we identify the saturation of nighttime light brightness in the urban center and significant increases in suburban areas. The maps of turning points indicate the greater the distance to the city center or sub-center, the later the turning point occurs. Six patterns derived from the classification illustrate the various characteristics of the nighttime light time series from the local to the national level. The results portray spatially explicit patterns and conspicuous temporal trends of urbanization dynamics for individual Chinese cities from 1992 to 2009.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6087708","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,20]],"date-time":"2014-08-20T10:27:29Z","timestamp":1408530449000},"page":"7708-7731","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Characterizing Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Urbanization in China Using Time Series of DMSP\/OLS Night Light Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Tao","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,  Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4362-9330","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ting","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,  Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chenghu","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,  Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuke","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,  Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Heilig, G.K. (2012). World Urbanization Prospects the 2011 Revision, U.S. Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), Population Division, Population Estimates and Projections Section."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1150195","article-title":"Global change and the ecology of cities","volume":"319","author":"Grimm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-4959.2007.232_3.x","article-title":"Urbanization and global environmental change: local effects of urban warming","volume":"173","author":"Grimmond","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geogr. J"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-006-9056-4","article-title":"Changes in land-use\/land-cover patterns in Italy and their implications for biodiversity conservation","volume":"22","author":"Falcucci","year":"2007","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1177\/0160017605275160","article-title":"The effects of urban patterns on ecosystem function.","volume":"28","author":"Alberti","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Reg. Sci. Rev"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2009.01372.x","article-title":"A global synthesis of plant extinction rates in urban areas","volume":"12","author":"Hahs","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00110-1","article-title":"Using nighttime DMSP\/OLS images of city lights to estimate the impact of urban land use on soil resources in the United States","volume":"59","author":"Imhoff","year":"1997","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0778-86","article-title":"Nighttime images of the earth from space","volume":"239","author":"Croft","year":"1978","journal-title":"Sci. Am"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"727","article-title":"Mapping city lights with nighttime data from the DMSP operational linescan system","volume":"63","author":"Elvidge","year":"1997","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(97)00046-1","article-title":"A technique for using composite DMSP\/OLS \u201ccity lights\u201d satellite data to map urban area","volume":"61","author":"Imhoff","year":"1997","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.02.002","article-title":"Spatial analysis of global urban extent from DMSP-OLS night lights","volume":"96","author":"Small","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-29.3.157","article-title":"Night-time imagery as a tool for global mapping of socioeconomic parameters and greenhouse gas emissions","volume":"29","author":"Doll","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2005.03.007","article-title":"Mapping regional economic activity from night-time light satellite imagery","volume":"57","author":"Doll","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"148","article-title":"Shedding light on the global distribution of economic activity","volume":"3","author":"Ghosh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Open. Geogr. J"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3061","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160010007015","article-title":"Census from Heaven: An estimate of the global human population using night-time satellite imagery","volume":"22","author":"Sutton","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802430693","article-title":"Modelling the population density of China at the pixel level based on DMSP\/OLS non-radiance-calibrated night-time light images","volume":"30","author":"Zhuo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802345685","article-title":"Spatial characterization of electrical power consumption patterns over India using temporal DMSP-OLS night-time satellite data","volume":"30","author":"Chand","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5541","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6065541","article-title":"Monitoring trends in light pollution in China based on nighttime satellite imagery","volume":"6","author":"Han","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.3390\/en20300595","article-title":"A fifteen year record of global natural gas flaring derived from satellite data","volume":"2","author":"Elvidge","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4780","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6064780","article-title":"Modeling in-use steel stock in China\u2019s buildings and civil engineering infrastructure using time-series of DMSP\/OLS nighttime lights","volume":"6","author":"Liang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"49","article-title":"Monitoring urbanization dynamics in India using DMSP\/OLS night time lights and SPOT-VGT data","volume":"23","author":"Pandey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.04.032","article-title":"Mapping urbanization dynamics at regional and global scales using multi-temporal DMSP\/OLS nighttime light data","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.04.018","article-title":"Quantitative estimation of urbanization dynamics using time series of DMSP\/OLS nighttime light data: A comparative case study from China\u2019s cities","volume":"124","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024004","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/8\/2\/024004","article-title":"A global fingerprint of macro-scale changes in urban structure from 1999 to 2009","volume":"8","author":"Frolking","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(01)00040-5","article-title":"Night-time lights of the world: 1994\u20131995","volume":"56","author":"Elvidge","year":"2001","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.08.021","article-title":"Spatial scaling of stable night lights","volume":"115","author":"Small","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.08.014","article-title":"Detecting trend and seasonal changes in satellite image time series","volume":"114","author":"Verbesselt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-010-1715-x","article-title":"NDVI indicated characteristics of vegetation cover change in China\u2019s metropolises over the last three decades","volume":"179","author":"Sun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"20","article-title":"Segmented: An R package to fit regression models with broken-line relationships","volume":"8","author":"Muggeo","year":"2008","journal-title":"R News"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Ball, G.H., and Hall, D.J. (1965). ISODATA, A Novel Method of Data Analysis and Pattern Classification, Stanford Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chieco.2003.09.018","article-title":"Rural\u2013urban migration and urbanization in China: Evidence from time-series and cross-section analyses.","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"China Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bennie, J., Davies, T.W., Duffy, J.P., Inger, R., and Gaston, K.J. (2014). Contrasting trends in light pollution across Europe based on satellite observed night time lights. Sci. Rep, 4.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep03789"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2005.05.009","article-title":"Analysis of spatio-temporal dynamic pattern and driving forces of urban land in China in 1990s using TM images and GIS","volume":"22","author":"Tian","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1162\/153535102320264512","article-title":"Geography, economic policy, and regional development in China","volume":"1","author":"Sachs","year":"2002","journal-title":"Asian Econ. Pap"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2005.05.008","article-title":"Challenges to the sustainability of \u2018development zones\u2019: A case study of Guangzhou Development District, China","volume":"22","author":"Wong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4988","DOI":"10.3390\/su5124988","article-title":"Using nighttime satellite imagery as a proxy measure of human well-being","volume":"5","author":"Ghosh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00098-4","article-title":"Radiance calibration of DMSP-OLS low-light imaging data of human settlements","volume":"68","author":"Elvidge","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6021705","article-title":"Evaluating the ability of NPP-VIIRS nighttime light data to estimate the gross domestic product and the electric power consumption of China at multiple scales: A comparison with DMSP-OLS data","volume":"6","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coscieme, L., Pulselli, F.M., Bastianoni, S., Elvidge, C.D., Anderson, S., and Sutton, P.C. (2013). A thermodynamic geography: Night-time satellite imagery as a proxy measure of emergy. Ambio.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-013-0468-5"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/6\/8\/7708\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:15:00Z","timestamp":1760217300000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/6\/8\/7708"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,20]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs6087708"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs6087708","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,20]]}}}