{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T12:23:45Z","timestamp":1784204625279,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,12,30]],"date-time":"2011-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1325203200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A BIPV-powered smart window comprising a building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) panel and an all-solid-state electrochromic (EC) stack is proposed. In the proposed device, the output voltage of the BIPV panel varies in accordance with the intensity of the incident light and is modulated in such a way as to generate the EC stack voltage required to maintain the indoor illuminance within a specified range. Two different EC stacks are fabricated and characterized, namely one stack comprising ITO\/WO3\/Ta2O5\/ITO and one stack comprising ITO\/WO3\/lithium-polymer electrolyte\/ITO. It is shown that of the two stacks, the ITO\/WO3\/lithium-polymer electrolyte\/ITO stack has a larger absorptance (i.e., approximately 99% at a driving voltage of 3.5 V). The experimental results show that the smart window incorporating an ITO\/WO3\/lithium-polymer electrolyte\/ITO stack with an electrolyte thickness of 1.0 \u03bcm provides an indoor illuminance range of 750\u20131,500 Lux under typical summertime conditions in Taiwan.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s120100359","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,12,30]],"date-time":"2011-12-30T08:44:36Z","timestamp":1325234676000},"page":"359-372","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["BIPV-Powered Smart Windows Utilizing Photovoltaic and Electrochromic Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Rong-Hua","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, ROC Military Academy, Kaohsiung 830, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu-Chia","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Materials Engineering, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2061","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2055061","article-title":"Tungsten oxide-prussian blue electrochromic system based on a proton-conducting polymer electrolyte","volume":"141","author":"Ho","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2795","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2059226","article-title":"Optimization study of solid-state electrochromic devices based on WO3\/lithium-polymer electrolyte\/V2O5 structures","volume":"141","author":"Zhang","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(97)00218-6","article-title":"Optical and electrochemical characteristics of sol-gel deposited tungsten oxide films: A comparison","volume":"304","year":"1997","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssi.2003.08.010","article-title":"Nanometer scale-electrochromic modification of NiO films using a novel technique of scanning near-field optical microscopy","volume":"163","author":"Iwata","year":"2003","journal-title":"Solid State Ion"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.H., Lim, J.W., Yoo, S.J., Cha, I.Y., and Sung, Y.E. (2011). The improving electrochromic performance of nickel oxide film using aqueous N,N-dimethylaminoethanol solution. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2011.06.023"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2008.09.025","article-title":"Structural, morphological, optical and electrochromic properties of Ti-doped MoO3 thin films","volume":"93","author":"Mahajan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnoncrysol.2008.06.075","article-title":"WO3-based electrochromic system with hybrid organic-inorganic gel electrolytes","volume":"354","author":"Zelazowska","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Non Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2054853","article-title":"Characterization of nonstoichiometric nickel oxide thin-film electrodes","volume":"141","author":"Passerini","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0038-092X(98)00061-9","article-title":"Design, production and chracterisation of an all solid state electrochromic medium size device","volume":"63","author":"Maccari","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sol. Energ"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-0248(99)00088-4","article-title":"Electrochromic tungsten oxide films: Review of progress 1993\u20131998","volume":"60","author":"Granqvist","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1021\/nn900428s","article-title":"Fast-switching photovoltachromic cells with tunable transmittance","volume":"3","author":"Wu","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpcs.2009.03.002","article-title":"Photoelectrochromic properties of NiO film deposited on an N-doped TiO2 photocatalytical layer","volume":"70","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Solids"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2009.10.013","article-title":"Photoelectrochromic properties and energy storage of TiO2\u2212xNx\/NiO bilayer thin films","volume":"94","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2010.07.030","article-title":"Development of photoelectrochromic devices for dynamic solar control in buildings","volume":"94","author":"Leftheriotis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2010.01.037","article-title":"Fast, self-supplied, all-solid photoelectrochromic film","volume":"195","author":"Mormile","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2011.09.014","article-title":"\u201cPartly covered\u201d photoelectrochromic devices with enhanced coloration speed and efficiency","volume":"96","author":"Leftheriotis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physb.2004.03.088","article-title":"Influence of proton insertion on the conductivity, structural and optical properties of amorphous and crystalline electrochromic WO3 films","volume":"349","author":"Kamal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/15\/3\/025","article-title":"Investigation of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic (XPS), cyclic voltammetric analysis of WO3 films and their electrochromic response in FTO\/WO3\/electrolyte\/FTO cells","volume":"15","author":"Sivakumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2621","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/16\/6\/066","article-title":"Optoelectrochemical properties of poly(5,12-dihydrothieno [3\u2032,4\u2032:2,3] [1,4] dioxocino [6,7-b] quinoxaline-co-2,2\u2032 bithiophene) and its electrochromic device application","volume":"16","author":"Ak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6953","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2010.06.082","article-title":"Enhanced electrochromic performance of macroporous WO3 films formed by anodic oxidation of DC-sputtered tungsten layers","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.S., Selkowitz, S.E., Clear, R.D., DiBartolomeo, D.L., Klems, J.H., Fernandes, L.L., Ward, G.J., Inkarojrit, V., and Yazdanian, M. (2006). Advancement of Electrochromic Window, California Energy Commission.","DOI":"10.2172\/899732"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0038-092X(98)00074-7","article-title":"Recent advances in electrochromics for smart windows applications","volume":"63","author":"Granqvist","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sol. Energ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S0927-0248(97)00279-1","article-title":"Smart switchable glazing for solar energy and daylight control","volume":"52","author":"Lampert","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2010.10.026","article-title":"Electrochromic interference filters fabricated from dense and porous tungsten oxide films","volume":"95","author":"Baloukas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(01)01488-2","article-title":"Effect of the deposition geometry on the electrical properties within tin-doped indium oxide film deposited under a given RF magnetron sputtering condition","volume":"401","author":"You","year":"2001","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2895","DOI":"10.3390\/s90402895","article-title":"A MEMs-based benzene gas sensor with a self-heating WO3 sensing layer","volume":"9","author":"Ke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2008.04.012","article-title":"Optimal sun-shading design for enhanced daylight illumination of subtropical classrooms","volume":"40","author":"Ho","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energ. Build"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/12\/1\/359\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:58:33Z","timestamp":1760219913000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/12\/1\/359"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,12,30]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s120100359"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s120100359","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,12,30]]}}}