{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T12:16:10Z","timestamp":1792066570114,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,11]],"date-time":"2018-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1518307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indoor fire detection using gas chemical sensing has been a subject of investigation since the early nineties. This approach leverages the fact that, for certain types of fire, chemical volatiles appear before smoke particles do. Hence, systems based on chemical sensing can provide faster fire alarm responses than conventional smoke-based fire detectors. Moreover, since it is known that most casualties in fires are produced from toxic emissions rather than actual burns, gas-based fire detection could provide an additional level of safety to building occupants. In this line, since the 2000s, electrochemical cells for carbon monoxide sensing have been incorporated into fire detectors. Even systems relying exclusively on gas sensors have been explored as fire detectors. However, gas sensors respond to a large variety of volatiles beyond combustion products. As a result, chemical-based fire detectors require multivariate data processing techniques to ensure high sensitivity to fires and false alarm immunity. In this paper, we the survey toxic emissions produced in fires and defined standards for fire detection systems. We also review the state of the art of chemical sensor systems for fire detection and the associated signal and data processing algorithms. We also examine the experimental protocols used for the validation of the different approaches, as the complexity of the test measurements also impacts on reported sensitivity and specificity measures. All in all, further research and extensive test under different fire and nuisance scenarios are still required before gas-based fire detectors penetrate largely into the market. Nevertheless, the use of dynamic features and multivariate models that exploit sensor correlations seems imperative.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020553","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,12]],"date-time":"2018-02-12T10:50:38Z","timestamp":1518432638000},"page":"553","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":177,"title":["Chemical Sensor Systems and Associated Algorithms for Fire Detection: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8854-8588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordi","family":"Fonollosa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Biomedical Engineering, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Signal and Information Processing for Sensing Systems, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of ESAII, Center for Biomedical Engineering Research, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Sol\u00f3rzano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Biomedical Engineering, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Signal and Information Processing for Sensing Systems, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2663-2965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santiago","family":"Marco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Biomedical Engineering, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Signal and Information Processing for Sensing Systems, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"National Research Council (1986). Fire and Smoke: Understanding the Hazards, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1108\/02602281211197143","article-title":"Fire detection in coal mines based on semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"32","author":"Reimann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1002\/1616-8984(200105)9:1<161::AID-SEUP161>3.0.CO;2-A","article-title":"Detection of Fires by Gas Sensors","volume":"9","author":"Kohl","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Update"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2004.03.001","article-title":"Performance improvement of fire detectors by means of gas sensors and neural networks","volume":"39","author":"Derbel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"11","article-title":"Chapter 2 Combustion Products and Their Effects on Life Safety","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Gann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fire Protection Handbook"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Chagger, R., and Smith, D. (2014). The Causes of False Fire Alarms in Buildings, BRE Global Ltd.. Briefing Paper."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podrzaj, P., and Hashimoto, H. (2006, January 8\u201311). Intelligent Space as a Fire Detection System. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSMC.2006.385194"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-7112(91)90048-4","article-title":"An Algorithm for Improving the Reliability of Detection with Processing of Multiple Sensors Signal","volume":"17","author":"Ishii","year":"1991","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2004.834613","article-title":"Sensor Technology Advances and Future Trends","volume":"53","author":"Kanoun","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2004). ASTM Standard Terminology of Fire Standards, ASTM."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"2010","article-title":"Photoelectric and Ionization Detectors: A Review of the Literature","volume":"12","author":"Fleming","year":"2006","journal-title":"Retrieved May"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Fabian, T.Z., and Gandhi, P.D. (2007). Smoke Characterization Project\u2014Technical Report, Underwriters Laboratories."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.03.013","article-title":"Open photoacoustic sensor as smoke detector","volume":"104","author":"Keller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1177\/104239159400600303","article-title":"The Use of Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Signal Discrimination in Fire Detection Systems","volume":"6","author":"Meacham","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Fire Prot. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1177\/1042391503013002003","article-title":"Review of Recent Developments in Fire Detection Technologies","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Fire Prot. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2017.05.003","article-title":"Fire toxicity\u2014The elephant in the room?","volume":"91","author":"Stec","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/0360-1285(95)00004-2","article-title":"The global equivalence ratio concept and the formation mechanisms of carbon monoxide in enclosure fires","volume":"21","author":"Pitts","year":"1995","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Supplement, E., Poisoning, C., and Coalition, T. (2009). Cyanide and Carbon Monoxide: The Toxic Twins of Smoke Inhalation, Cyanide Poisoning Treatment Coalition."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2007.10.003","article-title":"Fire smoke toxicity: The effect of nitrogen oxides","volume":"43","author":"Paul","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1177\/073490418500300302","article-title":"The Toxicity of Fire Effluents from Textiles and Upholstery Materials","volume":"3","author":"Kallonen","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Fire Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/073490419301100201","article-title":"A Retrospective Analysis of Predicted and Observed Smoke Lethal Toxic Potency Values","volume":"11","author":"Pauluhn","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Fire Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/753835","article-title":"Determination of HCl and VOC emission from thermal degradation of PVC in the absence and presence of copper, copper(II) oxide and copper(II) chloride","volume":"6","author":"Jafari","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Hertzberg, T., Blomqvist, P., Dalene, M., and Skarping, G. (2003). Particles and Isocyanates from Fires, SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1002\/fam.810110203","article-title":"A literature review of the chemical nature and toxicity of the decomposition products of polyethylenes","volume":"11","author":"Paabo","year":"1987","journal-title":"Fire Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI105296","article-title":"Considerations of the physiological variables that determine the blood carboxyhemoglobin concentration in man","volume":"44","author":"Coburn","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1080\/15428119691014675","article-title":"Errors in Derivations of the Coburn-Forster-Kane Equation for Predicting Carboxyhemoglobin","volume":"57","author":"Smith","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1080\/15298668791384643","article-title":"A Critical Analysis of the Use of the CFK Equation in Predicting COHb Formation","volume":"48","author":"Tikuisis","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.2170\/jjphysiol.31.131","article-title":"Prediction of the carbonmonoxyhemoglobin levels during and after carbon monoxide exposures in various animal species","volume":"31","author":"Tyuma","year":"1981","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1080\/15298668191419884","article-title":"Modeling carbon monoxide uptake during work","volume":"42","author":"Duker","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2007). ISO 13571:2007\u2014Life-Threatening Components of Fire\u2014Guidelines for the Estimation of Time Available for Escape Using Fire Data, International Organization for Standardization."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1973.10666210","article-title":"Experimental Human Exposure to High Concentrations of Carbon Monoxide","volume":"26","author":"Stewart","year":"1973","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Health Int. J."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Purser, D.A. (1988). Toxicity Assessment of Combustion Products. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Society of Fire Protection Engineers."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1177\/073490418500300501","article-title":"On the Toxicities of Atmospheres Containing Both CO and CO2","volume":"3","author":"Hartzell","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Fire Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(96)03492-0","article-title":"Overview of combustion toxicology","volume":"115","author":"Hartzell","year":"1996","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-4179(88)80005-6","article-title":"Toxic smoke compounds and inhalation injury\u2014A review","volume":"14","author":"Prien","year":"1988","journal-title":"Burns"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2015). ISO 13344:2015\u2014Estimation of the lethal Toxic Potency of Fire Effluents, International Organization for Standardization."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1177\/073490418700500602","article-title":"Modeling of Toxicological Effects of Fire Gases: VI. Further Studies on the Toxicity of Smoke Containing Hydrogen Chloride","volume":"5","author":"Hartzell","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Fire Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1177\/073490418500300504","article-title":"Modeling of Toxicological Effects of Fire Gases: V. Mathematical Modeling of Intoxication of Rats by Combined Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide Atmospheres","volume":"3","author":"Hartzell","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Fire Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Penney, D.G. (2000). Interactions among carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, low oxygen hypoxia, carbon dioxide and inhaled irritant gases. Carbon Monoxide Toxicity, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420039320"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Plastic and Rubber Institute and British Plastic Federation (1990). The Development of Toxic Hazard in Fires from Polyurethane Foams and the Effects of Fire Retardants. Flame Retardants, Elsevier Applied Science."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purser, D.A., and McAllister, J.L. (2016). Assessment of hazards to occupants from smoke, toxic gases, and heat. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2565-0_63"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"20053","article-title":"Mapping of gas concentrations, effect of dead-air space and effect of alternative detection technology in smouldering fires","volume":"16","author":"Sesseng","year":"2016","journal-title":"SPFR Rep. A"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Siemens Switzerland (2012). Fire Safety Guide, Siemens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015343000494","article-title":"Multisensor\/Multicriteria Fire Detection: A New Trend Rapidly Becomes State of the Art","volume":"33","author":"Pfister","year":"1997","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2004). ISO 7240: Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, ISO."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2013). NFPA NFPA-72: National Fire Alarm Signaling Code, National Fire Protection Association."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2013, December 13). Underwritters Laboratories. Available online: http:\/\/www.ul.com\/global\/eng\/pages\/aboutul\/whatwedo\/."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2016). Underwritters Laboratories UL217-Standard for Single and Multiple Station Smoke Alarms, Underwritters Laboratories."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2009). UL268\u2014Smoke Detectors for Fire Alarm Systems, UL."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2017). Underwritters Laboratories UL2034: Standard for Single and Multiple Station Carbon Monoxide Alarms, UL."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2010). CENELEC EN 50291: Electrical Apparatus for the Detection of Carbon Monoxide in Domestic Premiss, European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Thomas, G. (2016). A Study on the Performance of Current Smoke Alarms to the New Fire and Nuisance Tests Prescribed in ANSI\/UL 217-2015."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2014). Loss Prevention Standard Testing Procedures for the LPCB Approval and Listing of Carbon Monoxide\/Heat Multisensor Fire Detectors Using Electrochemical Cells, BRE Global Ltd."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2014). Loss Prevention Standard Testing Procedures for the LPCB Approval and Listing of Point Multisensor Fire Detectors Using Optical or Ionization Smoke Sensors And electrochemical Cell CO Sensors and, Optionally, Heat Sensors, BRE Global Ltd."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5469","DOI":"10.3390\/s100605469","article-title":"Metal oxide semi-conductor gas sensors in environmental monitoring","volume":"10","author":"Fine","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14813","DOI":"10.3390\/s131114813","article-title":"TiO2 nanotubes: Recent advances in synthesis and gas sensing properties","volume":"13","author":"Galstyan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertocci, F., Fort, A., Vignoli, V., Mugnaini, M., and Berni, R. (2017). Optimization of perovskite gas sensor performance: Characterization, measurement and experimental design. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17061352"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7152","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)10957-6","article-title":"Amperometric gas detection: A review","volume":"9","author":"Xiong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1021\/cr0681039","article-title":"Amperometric gas sensors\u2014A review","volume":"108","author":"Stetter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01040755","article-title":"Using multivariate statistical methods to detect fires","volume":"32","author":"McAvoy","year":"1996","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.5-819","article-title":"Analysis of Fire and Non-fire Signatures For Discriminating Fire Detection","volume":"5","author":"Milke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(99)00046-6","article-title":"Use of gaseous fire signatures as a mean to detect fires","volume":"34","author":"Hagen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Milke, J.A. (1999, January 24\u201326). Using multiple sensors for disciminating fire detection. Proceedings of the Fire Suppression and Detection Research Application Symposium, Research and Practice: Bridging the Gap, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2004.07.004","article-title":"Advanced fire detection algorithms using data from the home smoke detector project","volume":"40","author":"Cestari","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2007.01.006","article-title":"Fire detection using smoke and gas sensors","volume":"42","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Chen, S.-J. (2006). Fire Alarm Algorithm Using Smoke and Gas Sensors. (7,142,105), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(01)00057-1","article-title":"Advanced fire detection using multi-signature alarm algorithms","volume":"37","author":"Gottuk","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/S1532-0464(03)00034-0","article-title":"Logistic regression and artificial neural network classification models: A methodology review","volume":"35","author":"Dreiseitl","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Inform."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015432409522","article-title":"Monitoring Multiple Aspects of Fire Signatures for Discriminating Fire Detection","volume":"35","author":"Milke","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-7112(91)90052-Z","article-title":"A Primitive Study of a Fire Detection Method Controlled by Artificial Neural Net","volume":"17","author":"Okayama","year":"1991","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.4-751","article-title":"Design of Neural Net to Detect Early Stage of Fire and Evaluation by Using Real Sensors\u2019 Data","volume":"4","author":"Okayama","year":"1994","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01040709","article-title":"Analysis of Signature Patterns for Discriminating Fire Detection with Multiple Sensors","volume":"31","author":"Milke","year":"1995","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.3-955","article-title":"Approach to Detection of Fires in Their Very Early Stage by Odor Sensors and Neural Net","volume":"3","author":"Okayama","year":"1991","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00481-0","article-title":"Multi-criteria fire detection systems using a probabilistic neural network","volume":"69","author":"Shaffer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rose-Pehrsson, S.L., Hart, S.J., Street, T.T., Tatem, P.A., Williams, F., Hammond, M.H., Gottuk, D.T., Wright, M.T., and Wong, J.T. (2001, January 25\u201328). Real-Time Probabilistic Neural Network Performance and Optimization for Fire Detection and Nuisance Alarm Rejection. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA383627"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conrad, T., Reimann, P., and Schutze, A. (2007, January 28\u201331). A hierarchical strategy for under-ground early fire detection based on a T-cycled semiconductor gas sensor. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2007.4388629"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"67","article-title":"Sensor Arrays, Virtual Multisensors, Data Fusion, and Gas Sensor Data Evaluation","volume":"Volume 48","author":"Schutze","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gas Sensing Fundamentals"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bukowski, R.W., and Bright, R.G. (1974). Some Problems Noted in the Use of Taguchi Semiconductor Gas Sensors as Residential Fire\/Smoke Detectors.","DOI":"10.6028\/NBS.IR.74-591"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-7112(83)90067-X","article-title":"Detection of smoke gases by solid state sensors\u2014A focus on research activities","volume":"6","author":"Pfister","year":"1983","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(93)80038-D","article-title":"An algorithm for evaluating disasters by fuzzy reasoning","volume":"10","author":"Oyabu","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, H.C., and Fisher, A. (1995, January 18\u201320). A Robust Fire Detection Algorithiii for Temperature and Optical Smoke Density using Fuzzy Logic. Proceedings of the International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, Surrey, UK."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"1","article-title":"An Intelligent Fire Detection and Mitigation System Safe from Fire (SFF)","volume":"133","author":"Mobin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.10.070","article-title":"Orthogonal gas sensor arrays with intelligent algorithms for early warning of electrical fires","volume":"130","author":"Ni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.07.083","article-title":"Gas sensor characteristics for smoldering fire caused by a cigarette smoke","volume":"130","author":"Sawada","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2017.04.035","article-title":"Early fire detection: Are hydrogen sensors able to detect pyrolysis of house hold materials?","volume":"91","author":"Despinasse","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"2","article-title":"SnO2 Nanowire Based Aerosol Jet Printed Electronic Nose as Fire Detector","volume":"1748","author":"Adib","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K., Shim, Y.S., Song, Y.G., Han, S.D., Lee, Y.S., and Kang, C.Y. (2017). Highly sensitive sensors based on metal-oxide nanocolumns for fire detection. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020303"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.12.328","article-title":"A colorimetric CO sensor for fire detection","volume":"25","author":"Courbat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/2\/553\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:54:41Z","timestamp":1760194481000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/2\/553"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,11]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s18020553"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18020553","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,11]]}}}