{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:40:14Z","timestamp":1792802414625,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,25]],"date-time":"2020-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1600992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bioluminescent bacteria whole-cell biosensors (WCBs) have been widely used in a range of sensing applications in environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics. However, most of them use planktonic bacteria cells that require complicated signal measurement processes and therefore limit the portability of the biosensor device. In this study, a simple and low-cost immobilization method was examined. The bioluminescent bioreporter bacteria was absorbed on a filter membrane disk. Further optimization of the immobilization process was conducted by comparing different surface materials (polyester and parafilm) or by adding glucose and ampicillin. The filter membrane disks with immobilized bacteria cells were stored at \u221220 \u00b0C for three weeks without a compromise in the stability of its biosensing functionality for water toxicants monitoring. Also, the bacterial immobilized disks were integrated with smartphones-based signal detection. Then, they were exposed to water samples with ethanol, chloroform, and H2O2, as common toxicants. The sensitivity of the smartphone-based WCB for the detection of ethanol, chloroform, and H2O2 was 1% (v\/v), 0.02% (v\/v), and 0.0006% (v\/v), respectively. To conclude, this bacterial immobilization approach demonstrated higher sensitivity, portability, and improved storability than the planktonic counterpart. The developed smartphone-based WCB establishes a model for future applications in the detection of environmental water toxicants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20195486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,25]],"date-time":"2020-09-25T09:15:23Z","timestamp":1601025323000},"page":"5486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Smartphone-Based Whole-Cell Biosensor Platform Utilizing an Immobilization Approach on a Filter Membrane Disk for the Monitoring of Water Toxicants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Junning","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Postharvest Science, Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, the Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4119-6284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dorin","family":"Harpaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Postharvest Science, Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, the Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel"},{"name":"Institute of Biochemistry, Food science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China"},{"name":"School of Food Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528231, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3047-9425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evgeni","family":"Eltzov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Postharvest Science, Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, the Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel"},{"name":"Agro-Nanotechnology Research Center, Agriculture Research Organization, the Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(96)01906-5","article-title":"Whole cell biosensors","volume":"34","author":"Bousse","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7931","DOI":"10.1021\/es901349r","article-title":"Optimization of bacterial whole cell bioreporters for toxicity assay of environmental samples","volume":"43","author":"Song","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2018.11.141","article-title":"Immobilized bacterial biosensor for rapid and effective monitoring of acute toxicity in water","volume":"170","author":"Wasito","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gui, Q., Lawson, T., Shan, S., Yan, L., and Liu, Y. (2017). The application of whole cell-based biosensors for use in environmental analysis and in medical diagnostics. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071623"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2015.11.067","article-title":"Bioluminescent bioreporter pad biosensor for monitoring water toxicity","volume":"149","author":"Axelrod","year":"2016","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3655","DOI":"10.1021\/ac5038208","article-title":"Bioluminescent liquid light guide pad biosensor for indoor air toxicity monitoring","volume":"87","author":"Eltzov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2020.127896","article-title":"Evaluating the use of biosensors for monitoring of Penicillium digitatum infection in citrus fruit","volume":"311","author":"Chalupowicz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2020.121333","article-title":"Monitoring of infection volatile markers using CMOS-based luminescent bioreporters","volume":"219","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s40201-020-00447-2","article-title":"Immobilization of fluorescent bacterial bioreporter for arsenic detection","volume":"18","author":"Elcin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2697(02)00700-5","article-title":"Optical imaging fiber-based live bacterial cell array biosensor","volume":"315","author":"Biran","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(01)00533-1","article-title":"Antibody-based immobilization of bioluminescent bacterial sensor cells","volume":"55","author":"Premkumar","year":"2001","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.06.037","article-title":"Bacterial biofilm-based water toxicity sensor","volume":"158","author":"Amzel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zur, J., Wojcieszynska, D., and Guzik, U. (2016). Metabolic responses of bacterial cells to immobilization. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21070958"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.57.1.219-222.1991","article-title":"Immobilization of bacteria and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in poly (tetrafluoroethylene) membranes","volume":"57","author":"Hyde","year":"1991","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.15.2.155-166.2002","article-title":"Bacterial adhesion: Seen any good biofilms lately?","volume":"15","author":"Dunne","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e307","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0050307","article-title":"Looking for chinks in the armor of bacterial biofilms","volume":"5","author":"Monroe","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01465-08","article-title":"Toxin-antitoxin systems in Escherichia coli influence biofilm formation through YjgK (TabA) and fimbriae","volume":"191","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.5658","article-title":"Attenuation of adhesion, biofilm formation and quorum sensing of Campylobacter jejuni by Euodia ruticarpa","volume":"30","author":"Bezek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5006","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.8.5006-5010.2003","article-title":"Boundaries for biofilm formation: Humidity and temperature","volume":"69","author":"Else","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2003.05.003","article-title":"Distinctive bacteria-binding property of cloth materials","volume":"32","author":"Takashima","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40137","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.40137","article-title":"The effects of sugars on the biofilm formation of Escherichia coli 185p on stainless steel and polyethylene terephthalate surfaces in a laboratory model","volume":"9","author":"Khangholi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Jundishapur J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2723","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.7391","article-title":"Anti-adhesion activity of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) extract, thyme post-distillation waste, and olive (Olea europea L.) leaf extract against Campylobacter jejuni on polystyrene and intestine epithelial cells","volume":"96","author":"Klancnik","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2013.02.045","article-title":"The effect of glucose concentration and shaking conditions on Escherichia coli biofilm formation in microtiter plates","volume":"94","author":"Moreira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"DeSanty, K.M. (2020, September 25). Using Biofilms for the Detection and Bioremediation of Arsenic. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.wpi.edu\/mqp-all\/1523."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4659","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.62.12.4659-4662.1996","article-title":"A novel porous nylon biocarrier for immobilized bacteria","volume":"62","author":"Heitkamp","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.4172\/2155-9821.1000223","article-title":"Preservation of thermophiles bacterial spores using filter paper disc techniques","volume":"05","author":"Chitte","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Bioprocess. Biotech."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"42","article-title":"Utility of filter paper for preserving insects, bacteria, and host reservoir DNA for molecular testing","volume":"5","author":"Karimian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Iran J. Arthropod Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00443240","article-title":"Survival of microorganisms after drying and storage","volume":"47","author":"Antheunisse","year":"1981","journal-title":"Antonie van Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5339","DOI":"10.1039\/C8AN01269E","article-title":"Smartphone-based analytical biosensors","volume":"143","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2367039","article-title":"Smartphone Detection of Escherichia coli from field water samples on paper microfluidics","volume":"15","author":"Park","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5095","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2361651","article-title":"Lab-in-a-phone: Smartphone-based portable fluorometer for pH measurements of environmental water","volume":"15","author":"Hossain","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddiqui, M.F., Kim, S., Jeon, H., Kim, T., Joo, C., and Park, S. (2018). Miniaturized sample preparation and rapid detection of arsenite in contaminated soil using a smartphone. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18030777"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.02.053","article-title":"Smartphone-based enzymatic biosensor for oral fluid L-lactate detection in one minute using confined multilayer paper reflectometry","volume":"94","author":"Calabria","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2950","DOI":"10.1039\/c3lc50306b","article-title":"Rapid electrochemical detection on a mobile phone","volume":"13","author":"Lillehoj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, M.Y., Kao, W.C., Belkin, S., and Cheng, J.Y. (2019). A smartphone-based whole-cell array sensor for detection of antibiotics in milk. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183882"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2019.09.003","article-title":"Smartphone-based biosensors for portable food evaluation","volume":"28","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40203","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40203","article-title":"Smartphone-based low light detection for bioluminescence application","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2566","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.63.7.2566-2571.1997","article-title":"Detection of DNA damage by use of Escherichia coli carrying recA\u2019:: lux, uvrA\u2019:: lux, or alkA\u2019:: lux reporter plasmids","volume":"63","author":"Vollmer","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(02)00220-8","article-title":"A bioluminescent sensor for high throughput toxicity classification","volume":"18","author":"Kim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4124","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.61.11.4124-4127.1995","article-title":"Responses to toxicants of an Escherichia coli strain carrying a uspA\u2019::lux genetic fusion and an E. coli strain carrying a grpE\u2019::lux fusion are similar","volume":"61","author":"Smulski","year":"1995","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7915.2012.00333.x","article-title":"A bacterial reporter panel for the detection and classification of antibiotic substances","volume":"5","author":"Melamed","year":"2012","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-2920.2008.01768.x","article-title":"Insights on Escherichia coli biofilm formation and inhibition from whole-transcriptome profiling","volume":"11","author":"Wood","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.1998.853501.x","article-title":"Generation of a reproducible nutrient-depleted biofilm of Escherichia coli and Burkholderia cepacia","volume":"85","author":"Ballestero","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234006","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6463\/aa7097","article-title":"Emergence of cooperativity in a model biofilm","volume":"50","author":"Rotrattanadumrong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"e02644-19","article-title":"Social cooperativity of bacteria during reversible surface attachment in young biofilms: A quantitative comparison of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa PA14 and PAO1","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1005042","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005042","article-title":"Symbiotic cell differentiation and cooperative growth in multicellular aggregates","volume":"12","author":"Yamagishi","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLOS Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2014.00112","article-title":"How microorganisms use hydrophobicity and what does this mean for human needs?","volume":"4","author":"Krasowska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1590\/S1517-83822008000100003","article-title":"The relation between Escherichia coli surface functional groups\u2019 composition and their physicochemical properties","volume":"39","author":"Hamadi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Braz. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03175220","article-title":"Effects of short-time drying on biofilm-associated bacteria","volume":"57","author":"Cotuk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4317","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1804084115","article-title":"New insight into the early stages of biofilm formation","volume":"115","author":"Armbruster","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/09168451.2015.1058701","article-title":"Environmental factors that shape biofilm formation","volume":"80","author":"Toyofuku","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0385-0","article-title":"Biofilm dispersion","volume":"18","author":"Rumbaugh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3406","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.184.12.3406-3410.2002","article-title":"Catabolite repression of Escherichia coli biofilm formation","volume":"184","author":"Jackson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.3136\/fstr.18.879","article-title":"Effects of Temperature and Nutrient Conditions on Biofilm Formation of Pseudomonas putida","volume":"18","author":"Kazuya","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"12475","article-title":"Adhesive ability and biofilm metabolic activity of Listeria monocytogenes strains before and after cold stress","volume":"11","author":"Rihab","year":"2012","journal-title":"Afr. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6450","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.006450","article-title":"Lensless photography with only an image sensor","volume":"56","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.59.000801","article-title":"Design and application of a portable luminometer for bioluminescence detection","volume":"59","author":"Jung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1039\/C5EW00099H","article-title":"Detection of trace arsenic in drinking water: Challenges and opportunities for microfluidics","volume":"1","author":"Yogarajah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s12302-019-0193-1","article-title":"Future water quality monitoring: Improving the balance between exposure and toxicity assessments of real-world pollutant mixtures","volume":"31","author":"Altenburger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Eur."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5486\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:13:28Z","timestamp":1760177608000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5486"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,25]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s20195486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20195486","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,25]]}}}