{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T04:17:49Z","timestamp":1785471469586,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]],"date-time":"2021-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632441600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1632825"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1632825"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1919906"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1919906"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1726812"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1726812"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Penicillins and cephalosporins belong to the \u03b2-lactam antibiotic family, which accounts for more than half of the world market for antibiotics. Misuse of antibiotics harms human health and the environment. Here, we describe an easy, fast, and sensitive optical method for the sensing and discrimination of two penicillin and five cephalosporin antibiotics in buffered water at pH 7.4, using fifth-generation poly (amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers and calcein, a commercially available macromolecular polyelectrolyte and a fluorescent dye, respectively. In aqueous solution at pH 7.4, the dendrimer and dye self-assemble to form a sensor that interacts with carboxylate-containing antibiotics through electrostatic interaction, monitored through changes in the dye\u2019s spectroscopic properties. This response was captured through absorbance, fluorescence emission, and fluorescence anisotropy. The resulting data set was processed through linear discriminant analysis (LDA), a common pattern-base recognition method, for the differentiation of cephalosporins and penicillins. By pre-hydrolysis of the \u03b2-lactam rings under basic conditions, we were able to increase the charge density of the analytes, allowing us to discriminate the seven analytes at a concentration of 5 mM, with a limit of discrimination of 1 mM.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21196384","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]],"date-time":"2021-09-27T22:16:38Z","timestamp":1632780998000},"page":"6384","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Beta-Lactam Antibiotic Discrimination Using a Macromolecular Sensor in Water at Neutral pH"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0379-7188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yifei","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0155-5481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Bonizzoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA"},{"name":"Alabama Water Institute, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munteanu, F.D., Titoiu, A.M., Marty, J.-L., and Vasilescu, A. (2018). Detection of antibiotics and evaluation of antibacterial activity with screen-printed electrodes. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18030901"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2010.06.004","article-title":"Fast screening methods to detect antibiotic residues in food samples","volume":"29","author":"Maquieira","year":"2010","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2013.02.036","article-title":"Global risk of pharmaceutical contamination from highly populated developing countries","volume":"138","author":"Rehman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00016-10","article-title":"Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance","volume":"74","author":"Davies","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-003-1274-y","article-title":"Industrial production of \u03b2-lactam antibiotics","volume":"61","author":"Elander","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2012.04.007","article-title":"Update on counterfeit antibiotics worldwide; public health risks","volume":"42","author":"Delepierre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Mal. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00072-14","article-title":"Substandard\/counterfeit antimicrobial drugs","volume":"28","author":"Kelesidis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/81.1.51","article-title":"Evaluation of the European four-plate test as a tool for screening antibiotic residues in meat samples from retail outlets","volume":"81","author":"Okerman","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/0309-1740(95)00049-6","article-title":"Detection of antimicrobial residues in poultry meat and slaughter cattle in Nigeria","volume":"43","author":"Oboegbulem","year":"1996","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-51.8.632","article-title":"Detection of antibiotic residues in consumer milk supplies in north America using the Charm test II procedure","volume":"51","author":"Wood","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-49.9.687","article-title":"Detectability levels of four beta-lactam antibiotics in eight milk products using the AOAC Bacillus stearothermophilus Disc Assay","volume":"49","author":"Rajkowski","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2008.10.001","article-title":"Nouws antibiotic test: Validation of a post-screening method for antibiotic residues in kidney","volume":"20","author":"Pikkemaat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Control."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2008.08.023","article-title":"Comparison of three microbial screening methods for antibiotics using routine monitoring samples","volume":"637","author":"Pikkemaat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.2478\/fv-2018-0027","article-title":"Detection of residues of antimicrobial compounds in eggs by the rapid screening methods","volume":"62","author":"Krisova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Folia Vet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1080\/1828051X.2020.1761270","article-title":"Effective screening of antibiotic and coccidiostat residues in food of animal origin by reliable broadspectrum residue screening tests","volume":"19","author":"Kozarova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ital. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361","DOI":"10.1039\/a804903c","article-title":"Detection of antibiotics in muscle tissue with microbiological inhibition tests: Effects of the matrix","volume":"123","author":"Okerman","year":"1998","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2010.535027","article-title":"Screening methods for the detection of antibiotic residues in slaughter animals: Comparison of the European Union Four-Plate Test, the Nouws Antibiotic Test and the Premi (R) Test (applied to muscle and kidney)","volume":"28","author":"Pikkemaat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A Chem. Anal. Control."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6281","DOI":"10.1021\/ma5014868","article-title":"Intermolecular forces driving encapsulation of small molecules by PAMAM dendrimers in water","volume":"47","author":"Jolly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1295\/polymj.17.117","article-title":"A New Class of Polymers: Starburst-Dendritic Macromolecules","volume":"17","author":"Tomalia","year":"1985","journal-title":"Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1021\/bc9600630","article-title":"In vitro gene delivery by degraded polyamidoamine dendrimers","volume":"7","author":"Tang","year":"1996","journal-title":"Bioconjugate Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5725","DOI":"10.1021\/ma034276d","article-title":"Determination of the intrinsic proton binding constants for poly(amidoamine) dendrimers via potentiometric pH titration","volume":"36","author":"Niu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Y., and Bonizzoni, M. (2021). Discrimination and quantitation of biologically relevant carboxylate anions using a [dye \u2022 PAMAM] complex. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113637"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2015.06.056","article-title":"Validation of chemometric models\u2014A tutorial","volume":"893","author":"Westad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1021\/jo201360u","article-title":"PAMAM dendrimer-induced aggregation of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein","volume":"77","author":"Bonizzoni","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1080\/10610278.2014.915971","article-title":"PAMAM dendrimers as supramolecular hosts through non-covalent interactions","volume":"27","author":"Jolly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Supramol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1039\/C3CS60183H","article-title":"The use of principal component analysis and discriminant analysis in differential sensing routines","volume":"43","author":"Stewart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6429","DOI":"10.1021\/ja9743405","article-title":"Solution-based analysis of multiple analytes by a sensor array: Toward the development of an \u201celectronic tongue\u201d","volume":"120","author":"Lavigne","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4700","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.200700153","article-title":"Pattern-based peptide recognition","volume":"13","author":"Collins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(02)01422-8","article-title":"Comparison of supervised pattern recognition methods with McNemar\u2019s statistical test. Application to qualitative analysis of sugar beet by near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"477","author":"Roggo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2995","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-019-01786-2","article-title":"Brereton: Chemometrics: Data driven extraction for science, 2nd ed","volume":"411","author":"Bocklitz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.129951","article-title":"Discrimination of pathogenic bacteria with boronic acid modified protonated g-C3N4 nanosheets at various pHs","volume":"340","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2020.121897","article-title":"Protein discrimination based on DNA induced perylene probe self-assembly","volume":"224","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geana, E.-I., Ciucure, C.T., and Apetrei, C. (2020). Electrochemical sensors coupled with multivariate statistical analysis as screening tools for wine authentication issues: A review. Chemosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors8030059"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3094","DOI":"10.1039\/C5TB02530C","article-title":"Boronic acid-modified poly(amidoamine) dendrimers as sugar-sensing materials in water","volume":"4","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1021\/acsapm.9b00141","article-title":"Carbohydrate sensing using water-soluble poly(methacrylic acid)-co-3-(acrylamido)phenylboronic acid copolymer","volume":"1","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Polym. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16213","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c04062","article-title":"Pattern-based recognition systems: Overcoming the problem of mixtures","volume":"92","author":"Ihde","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16948","DOI":"10.1039\/C5CC05489C","article-title":"A cross reactive sensor array to probe divalent metal ions","volume":"51","author":"Mallet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotochem.2021.113198","article-title":"Highly sensitive sensing of food additives based on fluorescent carbon quantum dots","volume":"411","author":"Carneiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. A"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c02553","article-title":"A versatile fluorescent sensor array for platinum anticancer drug detection in biological fluids","volume":"6","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/19\/6384\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:04:36Z","timestamp":1760166276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/19\/6384"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s21196384"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21196384","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,24]]}}}