{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T00:10:20Z","timestamp":1791936620531,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643328000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme in the project In2Track2","award":["No 826255"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No 826255"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents methods for continuous condition monitoring of railway switches and crossings (S&amp;C, turnout) via sleeper-mounted accelerometers at the crossing transition. The methods are developed from concurrently measured sleeper accelerations and scanned crossing geometries from six in situ crossing panels. These measurements combined with a multi-body simulation (MBS) model with a structural track model and implemented scanned crossing geometries are used to derive the link between the crossing geometry condition and the resulting track excitation. From this analysis, a crossing condition indicator C\u03bb1\u2212\u03bb2,\u00a0\u03b3 is proposed. The indicator is defined as the root mean square (RMS) of a track response signal \u03b3 that has been band-passed between frequencies corresponding to track deformation wavelength bounds of \u03bb1 and \u03bb2 for the vehicle passing speed (f = v\/\u00a0\u03bb). In this way, the indicator ignores the quasi-static track response with wavelengths predominantly above \u03bb1 and targets the dynamic track response caused by the kinematic wheel-crossing interaction governed by the crossing geometry. For the studied crossing panels, the indicator C1\u22120.2\u00a0m,\u00a0\u03b3 (\u03bb1=1 and \u03bb2=0.2) was evaluated for \u03b3 = u, v, or a as in displacements, velocities, and accelerations, respectively. It is shown that this condition indicator has a strong correlation with vertical wheel\u2013rail contact forces that is sustained for various track conditions. Further, model calibrations were performed to measured sleeper displacements for the six investigated crossing panels. The calibrated models show (1) a good agreement between measured and simulated sleeper displacements for the lower frequency quasi-static track response and (2) improved agreement for the dynamic track response at higher frequencies. The calibration also improved the agreement between measurements and simulation for the crossing condition indicator demonstrating the value of model calibration for condition monitoring purposes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031012","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T01:43:27Z","timestamp":1643420607000},"page":"1012","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Condition Monitoring of Railway Crossing Geometry via Measured and Simulated Track Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1928-7470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marko D. G.","family":"Milosevic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences\/CHARMEC, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2237-8560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bj\u00f6rn A.","family":"P\u00e5lsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences\/CHARMEC, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arne","family":"Nissen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Swedish Transport Administration, P.O. Box 809, 971 25 Lule\u00e5, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jens C. O.","family":"Nielsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences\/CHARMEC, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00e5kan","family":"Johansson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences\/CHARMEC, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2015). Increased Capacity 4 Rail Networks through Enhanced Infrastructure and Optimized Operations, Deliverable D13.1 Operational Failure Modes of S&C, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2020.203331","article-title":"Long-term rail profile damage in a railway crossing: Field measurements and numerical simulations","volume":"472","author":"Skrypnyk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Cornish, A. (2014). Life-Time Monitoring of in Service Switches and Crossings through Field Experimentation. [Ph.D. Thesis, Imperial College London]."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhai, W. (2019). Vehicle\u2013Track Coupled Dynamics: Theory and Applications, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-32-9283-3"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.07.062","article-title":"Experimental tools for railway crossing condition monitoring (crossing condition monitoring tools)","volume":"129","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2021, November 20). In2Track, Deliverable 2.2, Enhanced S&C Whole System Analysis, Design and Virtual Validation, Chapter 3, Project Shift 2 Rail. Available online: https:\/\/projects.shift2rail.org\/download.aspx?id=51f4ad7e-3dc1-418c-8744-97f861c4cf95."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Bezin, Y., Grossoni, I., and Neves, S. (2015, January 17\u201321). Impact of wheel shape on the vertical damage of cast crossing panels in turnouts. Proceedings of the 24th International Symposium on Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e5lsson, B.A. (2019, January 12\u201316). A parameterized turnout model for simulation of dynamic vehicle-turnout interaction with an application to crossing geometry assessment. Proceedings of the IAVSD International Symposium on Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-38077-9_41"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2019.04.034","article-title":"Wheel\u2013rail impact loads and noise generated at railway crossings\u2013Influence of vehicle speed and crossing dip angle","volume":"456","author":"Torstensson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., and Markine, V.L. (2020). Train hunting related fast degradation of a railway crossing\u2014Condition monitoring and numerical verification. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082278"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2009.02.016","article-title":"Effects of train impacts on urban turnouts: Modelling and validation through measurements","volume":"324","author":"Bruni","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2017.1404617","article-title":"Optimisation of support stiffness at railway crossings","volume":"56","author":"Grossoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2012.07.033","article-title":"A wheel set\/crossing model regarding impact, sliding and deformation\u2014Explicit finite element approach","volume":"294","author":"Pletz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2015.1136424","article-title":"Numerical analysis of the dynamic interaction between wheel set and turnout crossing using the explicit finite element method","volume":"54","author":"Xin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.04.094","article-title":"In situ measurements of the crossing vibrations of a railway turnout","volume":"125","author":"Boogaard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Milosevic, M.D.G., P\u00e5lsson, B.A., Nissen, A., Nielsen, J.C.O., and Johansson, H. (2021). Reconstruction of sleeper displacements from measured accelerations for model-based condition monitoring of railway crossing panels, Submitted for international publication."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kampczyk, A., and Dybe\u0142, K. (2021). The Fundamental Approach of the Digital Twin Application in Railway Turnouts with Innovative Monitoring of Weather Conditions. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21175757"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ta\u015ftimur, C., Karak\u00f6se, M., and Erhan, A. (2016). A vision based condition monitoring approach for rail switch and level crossing using hierarchical SVM in railways. Int. J. Appl. Math. Electron. Comput., 319\u2013325.","DOI":"10.18100\/ijamec.270634"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2021, November 20). HandySCAN 3D\u2014Black Series. The Truly Portable Metrology-Grade 3D Scanners. Available online: https:\/\/www.creaform3d.com\/en\/portable-3d-scanner-handyscan-3d."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, D. (2013, January 22\u201323). Comparison of commonly used image interpolation methods. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Computer Science and Electronics Engineering, Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.2991\/iccsee.2013.391"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2021, November 20). Next generation KONUX IoT Device. Available online: https:\/\/www.konux.com\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bezin, Y., and P\u00e5lsson, B.A. (2021). Multibody simulation benchmark for dynamic vehicle-track interaction in switches and crossings: Modelling description and simulation tasks. Veh. Syst. Dyn., 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2021.1942079"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00423118208968684","article-title":"A fast algorithm for the simplified theory of rolling contact","volume":"11","author":"Kalker","year":"1982","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1007\/s40534-020-00217-8","article-title":"Experimental investigation of the dynamic behavior of railway track with sleeper voids","volume":"28","author":"Sysyn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Railw. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2011.560673","article-title":"Wheel-rail interaction and damage in switches and crossings","volume":"50","author":"Nielsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2012.665167","article-title":"Track gauge optimisation of railway switches using a genetic algorithm","volume":"50","author":"Nielsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2431","DOI":"10.1177\/0954409718772984","article-title":"A linear wheel\u2013crossing interaction model","volume":"232","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapic Transit"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1080\/00423119808969454","article-title":"Manchester benchmarks for rail vehicle simulation","volume":"30","author":"Iwnicki","year":"1998","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.106769","article-title":"An analysis of railway track behaviour based on distributed optical fibre acoustic sensing","volume":"142","author":"Milne","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"2","article-title":"The effect of track and vehicle parameters on wheel\/rail vertical dynamic forces","volume":"3","author":"Jenkins","year":"1974","journal-title":"Railw. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2015.1012213","article-title":"Dynamic vehicle-track interaction in switches and crossings and the influence of rail pad stiffness\u2014Field measurements and validation of a simulation model","volume":"53","author":"Nielsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Nicklisch, D., Nielsen, J.C.O., Ekh, M., Johansson, A., P\u00e5lsson, B., Zoll, A., and Reinecke, J. (2009, January 17\u201321). Simulation of wheel\u2013rail contact and subsequent material degradation in switches & crossings. Proceedings of the 21st International Symposium on Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.107485","article-title":"Matrix coupled model for the vehicle\u2013track interaction analysis featured to the railway crossing","volume":"152","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002864","article-title":"Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and interpretation","volume":"126","author":"Schober","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Montgomery, D.C., Peck, E.A., and Vining, G.G. (2021). Introduction to Linear Regression Analysis, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-460X(02)01007-6","article-title":"Simulation of track-ground vibrations due to a high-speed train: The case of X-2000 at Ledsg\u00e5rd","volume":"261","author":"Takemiya","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/1012\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:09:39Z","timestamp":1760134179000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/3\/1012"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s22031012"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22031012","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]}}}