{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T15:31:36Z","timestamp":1777563096503,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,6]],"date-time":"2022-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The assessment of movement reaction time (RT) as a sideline assessment is a valuable biomarker for mild TBI or concussion. However, such assessments require controlled laboratory environments, which may not be feasible for sideline testing during a game. Body-worn wearable devices are advantageous as being cost-effective, easy to don and use, wirelessly transmit data, and ensure unhindered movement performance. This study aimed to develop a Drop-stick Test System (DTS) with a wireless inertial sensor and confirm its reliability for different standing conditions (Foam versus No Foam) and task types (Single versus Dual), and postures (Standing versus sitting). Fourteen healthy young participants (seven females, seven males; age 24.7 \u00b1 2.6 years) participated in this study. The participants were asked to catch a falling stick attached to the sensor during a drop test. Reaction Times (RTs) were calculated from data for each trial from DTS and laboratory camera system (gold standard). Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC 3,k) were computed to determine inter-instrument reliability. The RT measurements from participants using the camera system and sensor-based DTS showed moderate to good inter-instrument reliability with an overall ICC of 0.82 (95% CI 0.78\u20130.85). Bland\u2013Altman plots and 95% levels of agreement revealed a bias where the DTS underestimated RT by approximately 50 ms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218555","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,7]],"date-time":"2022-11-07T03:02:22Z","timestamp":1667790142000},"page":"8555","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Reliability and Validity of Inertial Sensor Assisted Reaction Time Measurement Tools among Healthy Young Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4705-5653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brent","family":"Harper","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA 92618, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Shiraishi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA 92618, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9836-1549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rahul","family":"Soangra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA 92618, USA"},{"name":"Fowler School of Engineering, Chapman University, Orange, CA 92866, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2015.11868852","article-title":"Evaluation of Video-based method for the measurement of reaction time in specific sport situation","volume":"15","author":"Mudric","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1988.66.2.363","article-title":"Guidelines for measuring reaction time","volume":"66","author":"Crabtree","year":"1988","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(69)90065-1","article-title":"On the speed of mental processes","volume":"30","author":"Donders","year":"1969","journal-title":"Acta Psychol. (Amst.)"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"421","article-title":"Memory-scanning: Mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments","volume":"57","author":"Sternberg","year":"1969","journal-title":"Am. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.1996.0033","article-title":"The trouble with cognitive subtraction","volume":"4","author":"Friston","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Sanders, A.F. (1998). Elements of Human Performance: Reaction Processes and Attention in Human Skill, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Lee, T.D., and Schmidt, R.A. (2005). Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis, Human Kinetics."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polecho\u0144ski, J., and Langer, A. (2022). Assessment of the Relevance and Reliability of Reaction Time Tests Performed in Immersive Virtual Reality by Mixed Martial Arts Fighters. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134762"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-022-01080-7","article-title":"Effects of unilateral dynamic handgrip on reaction time and error rate","volume":"23","author":"Mirifar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2022.113839","article-title":"Retrospective composite analysis of StartReact data indicates sex differences in simple reaction time are not attributable to response preparation","volume":"426","author":"Sadler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acn.2007.04.008","article-title":"Reaction time: An alternative method for assessing the effects of multiple sclerosis on information processing speed","volume":"22","author":"Reicker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-199611000-00006","article-title":"Alpha Frequency, Reaction Time, and the Speed of Processing Information","volume":"13","author":"Klimesch","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28075","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.28075","article-title":"Reaction times can reflect habits rather than computations","volume":"6","author":"Wong","year":"2017","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"280","article-title":"Monitoring Resolution of Postconcussion Symptoms in Athletes: Preliminary Results of a Web-Based Neuropsychological Test Protocol","volume":"36","author":"Erlanger","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-013-0881-8","article-title":"The Effect of Visual and Sensory Performance on Head Impact Biomechanics in College Football Players","volume":"42","author":"Harpham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1394","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-2849","article-title":"Collision type and player anticipation affect head impact severity among youth ice hockey players","volume":"125","author":"Mihalik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181f1cc51","article-title":"Can a clinical test of reaction time predict a functional head-protective response?","volume":"43","author":"Eckner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.12965\/jer.1836416.208","article-title":"The effects of vision training, neck musculature strength, and reaction time on concussions in an athletic population","volume":"14","author":"Honda","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exerc. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7401185060p1","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.2020.036251","article-title":"Dynavision Normative Data for Healthy Adults: Reaction Test Program","volume":"74","author":"Blackwell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soangra, R., and Lockhart, T. (2021). Smartphone-Based Prediction Model for Postoperative Cardiac Surgery Outcomes Using Preoperative Gait and Posture Measures. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051704"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soangra, R., and Lockhart, T.E. (2018). Inertial Sensor-Based Variables Are Indicators of Frailty and Adverse Post-Operative Outcomes in Cardiovascular Disease Patients. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061792"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"254","article-title":"Agreement in gait speed from smartphone and stopwatch for five meter walk in laboratory and clinical environments","volume":"50","author":"Soangra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931214581349","article-title":"Potential for using Smartphone Accelerometers in Non-laboratory Environments","volume":"58","author":"Soangra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1519\/00139143-200932030-00004","article-title":"Reliability and validity of a clinical test of reaction time in older adults","volume":"32","author":"Mercer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.108.3.717-720","article-title":"Evaluating a Clinical Measure of Reaction Time: An Observational Study","volume":"108","author":"Eckner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2012-091579","article-title":"Effect of sport-related concussion on clinically measured simple reaction time","volume":"48","author":"Eckner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-45.4.327","article-title":"Pilot evaluation of a novel clinical test of reaction time in national collegiate athletic association division I football players","volume":"45","author":"Eckner","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.2466\/25.15.PMS.120v19x6","article-title":"Reliability and Criterion Validity of a Novel Clinical Test of Simple and Complex Reaction Time in Athletes","volume":"120","author":"Eckner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/JSM.0000000000000096","article-title":"Evaluation of a simple test of reaction time for baseline concussion testing in a population of high school athletes","volume":"25","author":"MacDonald","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. J. Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1097\/NPT.0000000000000090","article-title":"Motor-Cognitive Dual-Task Training in Persons With Neurologic Disorders: A Systematic Review","volume":"39","author":"Fritz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25674","article-title":"Cognitive contributions to gait and falls: Evidence and implications","volume":"28","author":"Amboni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.5770\/cgj.18.188","article-title":"Mobility and Cognition in Seniors. Report from the 2008 Institute of Aging (CIHR) Mobility and Cognition Workshop","volume":"18","author":"Bherer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can. Geriatr. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1159\/000111582","article-title":"Gait variability is associated with subclinical brain vascular abnormalities in high-functioning older adults","volume":"29","author":"Rosano","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2004.015909","article-title":"Detecting altered postural control after cerebral concussion in athletes with normal postural stability","volume":"39","author":"Cavanaugh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.25545","article-title":"Moving forward on gait measurement: Toward a more refined approach","volume":"28","author":"Lord","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/gls255","article-title":"Independent domains of gait in older adults and associated motor and nonmotor attributes: Validation of a factor analysis approach","volume":"68","author":"Lord","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2016.11.056","article-title":"A self-powered acceleration sensor with flexible materials based on triboelectric effect","volume":"31","author":"Xiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nano. Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eml.2020.101021","article-title":"Theoretical investigation and experimental verification of the self-powered acceleration sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs)","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Extrem. Mech. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galetta, K.M., Liu, M., Leong, D.F., Ventura, R.E., Galetta, S.L., and Balcer, L.J. (2016). The King-Devick test of rapid number naming for concussion detection: Meta-analysis and systematic review of the literature. Concussion, 1.","DOI":"10.2217\/cnc.15.8"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aron, A., Harper, B., Andrews, R., Boggs, E., and Stanley, A. (2021). The Effect of Whole-Body Fatigue on King-Devick Test and Balance. Res. Q Exerc. Sport, 1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2021.1921103"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000000226","article-title":"Adding Vision to Concussion Testing: A Prospective Study of Sideline Testing in Youth and Collegiate Athletes","volume":"35","author":"Galetta","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1212\/CPJ.0000000000000060","article-title":"Vision testing is additive to the sideline assessment of sports-related concussion","volume":"5","author":"Marinides","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcm.2016.02.012","article-title":"A Guideline of Selecting and Reporting Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for Reliability Research","volume":"15","author":"Koo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chiropr. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1177\/096228029900800204","article-title":"Measuring agreement in method comparison studies","volume":"8","author":"Bland","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stat. Methods Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1681.2009.05288.x","article-title":"Confidence in Altman-Bland plots: A critical review of the method of differences","volume":"37","author":"Ludbrook","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trinidad-Fernandez, M., Beckwee, D., Cuesta-Vargas, A., Gonzalez-Sanchez, M., Moreno, F.A., Gonzalez-Jimenez, J., Joos, E., and Vaes, P. (2020). Validation, Reliability, and Responsiveness Outcomes of Kinematic Assessment with An RGB-D Camera to Analyze Movement in Subacute and Chronic Low Back Pain. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030689"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1589\/jpts.33.439","article-title":"The Role of Pre-Season Health Characteristics As Injury Risk Factors in Female Adolescent Soccer Players","volume":"33","author":"Harper","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Ther. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000002300","article-title":"Clinical versus Functional Reaction Time: Implications for Postconcussion Management","volume":"52","author":"Lempke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"407","article-title":"A comparative study for performance evaluation of sit-to-stand task with body worn sensor and existing laboratory methods","volume":"48","author":"Soangra","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-012-0701-6","article-title":"Effects of hemodialysis therapy on sit-to-walk characteristics in end stage renal disease patients","volume":"41","author":"Soangra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e3181c7c536","article-title":"Gender influence on response time to sensory stimuli","volume":"24","author":"Spierer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.33314\/jnhrc.v18i1.2545","article-title":"Influence of Body Mass Index, Handedness and Gender on Ruler Drop Method Reaction Time among Adults","volume":"18","author":"Jha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nepal. Health Res. Counc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1123\/jsr.2021-0021","article-title":"Test-Retest Reliability of a Functional Reaction Time Assessment Battery","volume":"30","author":"Lynall","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sport Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001647","article-title":"Detection of Persisting Concussion Effects on Neuromechanical Responsiveness","volume":"50","author":"Wilkerson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-52.6.02","article-title":"Evaluating the Recovery Curve for Clinically Assessed Reaction Time After Concussion","volume":"52","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-020-01281-0","article-title":"Examination of Reaction Time Deficits Following Concussion: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"50","author":"Lempke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0000000000000430","article-title":"Neuromechanical Considerations for Postconcussion Musculoskeletal Injury Risk Management","volume":"16","author":"Wilkerson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Sport Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"495","article-title":"Concussions among United States high school and collegiate athletes","volume":"42","author":"Gessel","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Athl. Train."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subotic, A., Ting, W.K., and Cusimano, M.D. (2017). Characteristics of the King-Devick test in the assessment of concussed patients in the subacute and later stages after injury. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0183092"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e139","DOI":"10.1097\/JSM.0000000000000691","article-title":"King-Devick Test Time Varies by Testing Modality","volume":"30","author":"Clugston","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. J. Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000000829","article-title":"A Reliability and Comparative Analysis of the New Randomized King-Devick Test","volume":"40","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025042","article-title":"A novel clinical test of recognition reaction time in healthy adults","volume":"24","author":"Eckner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8555\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:11:37Z","timestamp":1760145097000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8555"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,6]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s22218555"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22218555","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,6]]}}}