{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T03:57:48Z","timestamp":1773028668436,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]],"date-time":"2022-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669680000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Knowledge Economy Skills Scholarships 2 (KESS2)","award":["MEK334"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MEK334"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Given the high rates of both primary and secondary anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in multidirectional field sports, there is a need to develop easily accessible methods for practitioners to monitor ACL injury risk. Field-based methods to assess knee variables associated with ACL injury are of particular interest to practitioners for monitoring injury risk in applied sports settings. Knee variables or proxy measures derived from wearable inertial measurement units (IMUs) may thus provide a powerful tool for efficient injury risk management. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify whether there were correlations between laboratory-derived knee variables (knee range of motion (RoM), change in knee moment, and knee stiffness) and metrics derived from IMUs (angular velocities and accelerations) placed on the tibia and thigh, across a range of movements performed in practitioner assessments used to monitor ACL injury risk. Ground reaction forces, three-dimensional kinematics, and triaxial IMU data were recorded from nineteen healthy male participants performing bilateral and unilateral drop jumps, and a 90\u00b0 cutting task. Spearman\u2019s correlations were used to examine the correlations between knee variables and IMU-derived metrics. A significant strong positive correlation was observed between knee RoM and the area under the tibia angular velocity curve in all movements. Significant strong correlations were also observed in the unilateral drop jump between knee RoM, change in knee moment, and knee stiffness, and the area under the tibia acceleration curve (rs = 0.776, rs = \u22120.712, and rs = \u22120.765, respectively). A significant moderate correlation was observed between both knee RoM and knee stiffness, and the area under the thigh angular velocity curve (rs = 0.682 and rs = \u22120.641, respectively). The findings from this study suggest that it may be feasible to use IMU-derived angular velocities and acceleration measurements as proxy measures of knee variables in movements included in practitioner assessments used to monitor ACL injury risk.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T07:38:50Z","timestamp":1669793930000},"page":"9286","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Angular Velocities and Linear Accelerations Derived from Inertial Measurement Units Can Be Used as Proxy Measures of Knee Variables Associated with ACL Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Holly S. R.","family":"Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff CF23 6XD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1107-6484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria H.","family":"Stiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, St Luke\u2019s Campus, Exeter EX1 2LU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2939-8046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jasper","family":"Verheul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff CF23 6XD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Isabel S.","family":"Moore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff CF23 6XD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1007\/s00167-009-0813-1","article-title":"Prevention of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players. Part 1: Mechanisms of injury and underlying risk factors","volume":"17","author":"Myer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sport. Traumatol. Arthrosc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1080\/15438627.2012.680633","article-title":"Systematic Review: Annual Incidence of ACL Injury and Surgery in Various Populations","volume":"20","author":"Moses","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2013-093398","article-title":"Fifty-five per cent return to competitive sport following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis including aspects of physical functioning and contextual factors","volume":"48","author":"Ardern","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/s12178-017-9419-2","article-title":"Performance: Bridging the Gap After ACL Surgery","volume":"10","author":"Osmak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Rev. Musculoskelet. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3479","DOI":"10.1177\/03635465211044458","article-title":"High Risk of New Knee Injuries in Female Soccer Players After Primary Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction at 5- to 10-Year Follow-up","volume":"49","author":"Kvist","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546514530088","article-title":"Incidence of Second ACL Injuries 2 Years After Primary ACL Reconstruction and Return to Sport","volume":"42","author":"Paterno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3353","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546518803932","article-title":"Fifteen-Year Audit of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstructions in the Australian Football League From 1999 to 2013: Return to Play and Subsequent ACL Injury","volume":"46","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546513517540","article-title":"Younger Patients Are at Increased Risk for Graft Rupture and Contralateral Injury After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction","volume":"42","author":"Webster","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/24733938.2019.1709654","article-title":"Measuring biomechanical loads in team sports \u2013 from lab to field","volume":"4","author":"Verheul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Med. Footb."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.3390\/s140100887","article-title":"An Ambulatory Method of Identifying Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstructed Gait Patterns","volume":"14","author":"Patterson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1007\/s00167-005-0023-4","article-title":"A new ambulatory system for comparative evaluation of the three-dimensional knee kinematics, applied to anterior cruciate ligament injuries","volume":"14","author":"Favre","year":"2006","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sport. Traumatol. Arthrosc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4253","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2817228","article-title":"Hip and Trunk Kinematics Estimation in Gait Through Kalman Filter Using IMU Data at the Ankle","volume":"18","author":"Baghdadi","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pratt, K.A., and Sigward, S.M. (2018). Inertial Sensor Angular Velocities Reflect Dynamic Knee Loading during Single Limb Loading in Individuals Following Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103460"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091006","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4007178","article-title":"Characterization of Thigh and Shank Segment Angular Velocity During Jump Landing Tasks Commonly Used to Evaluate Risk for ACL Injury","volume":"134","author":"Dowling","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1007\/s00167-012-2011-9","article-title":"Changing sagittal plane body position during single-leg landings influences the risk of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury","volume":"21","author":"Shimokochi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sport. Traumatol. Arthroscs."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"2325967117745487","article-title":"Sagittal Plane Hip, Knee, and Ankle Biomechanics and the Risk of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: A Prospective Study","volume":"5","author":"Pasanen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Orthop. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"315","article-title":"Differences in lower limb joint stiffness in multiple movements following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction","volume":"40","author":"Jones","year":"2022","journal-title":"ISBS Proc. Arch."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2016.06.021","article-title":"Characterizing knee loading asymmetry in individuals following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction using inertial sensors","volume":"49","author":"Sigward","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2007.03.003","article-title":"Are knee mechanics during early stance related to tibial stress fracture in runners?","volume":"22","author":"Milner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546520985283","article-title":"Can Biomechanical Testing After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Identify Athletes at Risk for Subsequent ACL Injury to the Contralateral Uninjured Limb?","volume":"49","author":"King","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2567","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.13259","article-title":"Whole-body biomechanical differences between limbs exist 9 months after ACL reconstruction across jump\/landing tasks","volume":"28","author":"King","year":"2018","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546504269591","article-title":"Biomechanical Measures of Neuromuscular Control and Valgus Loading of the Knee Predict Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk in Female Athletes: A Prospective Study","volume":"33","author":"Hewett","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546510376053","article-title":"Biomechanical Measures during Landing and Postural Stability Predict Second Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction and Return to Sport","volume":"38","author":"Paterno","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.14104","article-title":"Movement strategy correspondence across jumping and cutting tasks after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction","volume":"32","author":"Jones","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2018.09.021","article-title":"Biomechanical but not timed performance asymmetries persist between limbs 9 months after ACL reconstruction during planned and unplanned change of direction","volume":"81","author":"King","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsb.7.3.303","article-title":"Relationships between Ground Reaction Force and Tibial Bone Acceleration Parameters","volume":"7","author":"Hennig","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Biomech."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orthtr.2019.06.001","article-title":"Measuring biomechanical loads and asymmetries in junior elite long-distance runners through triaxial inertial sensors","volume":"35","author":"Fleckenstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sports Orthop. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.12.011","article-title":"Effect of low pass filtering on joint moments from inverse dynamics: Implications for injury prevention","volume":"45","author":"Kristianslund","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3138397","article-title":"A Joint Coordinate System for the Clinical Description of Three-Dimensional Motions: Application to the Knee","volume":"105","author":"Grood","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Biomech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.03.009","article-title":"A new method for estimating joint parameters from motion data","volume":"38","author":"Schwartz","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dempster, W.T. (1955). Space Requirements of the Seated Operator, Geometrical, Kinematic, and Mechanical Aspects of the Body with Special Reference to the Limbs, Michigan State University East Lansing.","DOI":"10.21236\/AD0087892"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"A mathematical model of the human body","volume":"64","author":"Hanavan","year":"1964","journal-title":"Aerosp. Med. Res. Lab."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Winter, D.A. (2005). Chapter 9: Kinesiological Electromyography. Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203771587"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2381","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.H.01721","article-title":"Tibiofemoral Alignment: Contributing Factors to Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury","volume":"91","author":"Boden","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1948","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000180404.86078.ff","article-title":"Muscle, Ligament, and Joint-Contact Forces at the Knee during Walking","volume":"37","author":"Shelburne","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(98)00181-X","article-title":"The importance of quadriceps and hamstring muscle loading on knee kinematics and in-situ forces in the ACL","volume":"32","author":"Li","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546503258928","article-title":"Aggressive Quadriceps Loading Can Induce Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury","volume":"32","author":"Demorat","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1177\/036354659202000311","article-title":"Anterior-posterior and rotational displacement of the tibia elicited by quadriceps contraction","volume":"20","author":"Hirokawa","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"419","article-title":"The influence of muscle load on tibiofemoral knee kinematics","volume":"28","author":"Victor","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2016.1271138","article-title":"Increasing hip and knee flexion during a drop-jump task reduces tibiofemoral shear and compressive forces: Implications for ACL injury prevention training","volume":"35","author":"Tsai","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0968-0160(97)00254-8","article-title":"Knee kinematics and ligament lengths during physiologic levels of isometric quadriceps loads","volume":"4","author":"Hsich","year":"1997","journal-title":"Knee"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.22082","article-title":"Muscles that do not cross the knee contribute to the knee adduction moment and tibiofemoral compartment loading during gait","volume":"30","author":"Sritharan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000126779.65353.CB","article-title":"The Effects of Knee Contact Angle on Impact Forces and Accelerations","volume":"36","author":"Derrick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2017.1371214","article-title":"The one-week and six-month reliability and variability of three-dimensional tibial acceleration in runners","volume":"17","author":"Sheerin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Biomech."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purcell, B., Channells, J., James, D., and Barrett, R. (2006). Use of accelerometers for detecting foot-ground contact time during running. BioMEMS and Nanotechnology II, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.638389"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9286\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:29:22Z","timestamp":1760146162000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9286"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s22239286"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22239286","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]}}}