{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T14:18:11Z","timestamp":1762957091794,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The paper presents a framework to emulate spacecraft orbits using GNSS hardware in the loop that enables the evaluation of new orbital positioning algorithms. The framework software generates the spacecraft orbit and the GNSS signals, including the most common perturbations. These signals are modulated and transmitted by a software-defined radio and received by a commercial GPS receiver. The system is validated using a test orbit, where the GPS receiver accurately determines the spacecraft positions. Moreover, using raw data provided by the receiver, the spacecraft positions have also been determined by software for a low earth orbit, in which civil GPS receivers do not work.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020885","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T04:29:38Z","timestamp":1673497778000},"page":"885","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Framework to Emulate Spacecraft Orbital Positioning Using GNSS Hardware in the Loop"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Forero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Research Group, Polytechnic School, University of Alcal\u00e1, 28805 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4071-2147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Segundo","family":"Esteban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Architecture and Automatic Control, Faculty of Physic Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7893-4247","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00d3scar","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Polo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space Research Group, Polytechnic School, University of Alcal\u00e1, 28805 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2015.06.007","article-title":"Feasibility study of GNSS as navigation system to reach the Moon","volume":"116","author":"Capuano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2008.07.022","article-title":"En route to the Moon using GNSS signals","volume":"64","author":"Palmerini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/navi.354","article-title":"GPS-based satellite formation flight simulation and applications to ionospheric remote sensing","volume":"67","author":"Peng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Navigation"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2010.08.012","article-title":"Hardware-in-the-loop simulations of GPS-based navigation and control for satellite formation flying","volume":"46","author":"Park","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. 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