{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T20:25:07Z","timestamp":1780345507558,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]],"date-time":"2023-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A navigation system for individuals suffering from blindness or visual impairment provides information useful to reach a destination. Although there are different approaches, traditional designs are evolving into distributed systems with low-cost, front-end devices. These devices act as a medium between the user and the environment, encoding the information gathered on the surroundings according to theories on human perceptual and cognitive processes. Ultimately, they are rooted in sensorimotor coupling. The present work searches for temporal constraints due to such human\u2013machine interfaces, which in turn constitute a key design factor for networked solutions. To that end, three tests were conveyed to a group of 25 participants under different delay conditions between motor actions and triggered stimuli. The results show a trade-off between spatial information acquisition and delay degradation, and a learning curve even under impaired sensorimotor coupling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23063219","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]],"date-time":"2023-03-17T05:06:01Z","timestamp":1679029561000},"page":"3219","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Network QoS Impact on Spatial Perception through Sensory Substitution in Navigation Systems for Blind and Visually Impaired People"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5862-616X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santiago","family":"Real","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"B105 Electronic Systems Lab, Escuela T\u00e9cnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9269-5900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alvaro","family":"Araujo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"B105 Electronic Systems Lab, Escuela T\u00e9cnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ha, K., Chen, Z., Hu, W., Richter, W., Pillai, P., and Satyanarayanan, M. (2014, January 16\u201319). Towards wearable cognitive assistance. Proceedings of the 12th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services, Bretton Woods, NH, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2594368.2594383"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz, M.O., Klatzky, R., Wang, J., Pillai, P., Satyanarayanan, M., and Gross, J. (2021). Impact of delayed response on wearable cognitive assistance. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248690"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Real, S., and Araujo, A. (2019). Navigation Systems for the Blind and Visually Impaired: Past Work, Challenges, and Open Problems. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153404"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1592","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2017.2682265","article-title":"An Indoor Wayfinding System Based on Geometric Features Aided Graph SLAM for the Visually Impaired","volume":"25","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Li, H., Chen, J., Chai, X., and Zhai, Z. (2021, January 19\u201321). A Wearable Vision-To-Audio Sensory Substitution System Based on Deep Learning for the Visually Impaired. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Digital Society and Intelligent Systems (DSInS), Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSInS54396.2021.9670599"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29612","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3157876","article-title":"Network-Aware 5G Edge Computing for Object Detection: Augmenting Wearables to \u201cSee\u201d More, Farther and Faster","volume":"10","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lenay, C., Gapenne, O., Hanneton, S., Marque, C., and Genouell, C. (2003). Sensory substitution: Limits and perspectives. Touching Knowing, 275\u2013292.","DOI":"10.1075\/aicr.53.22len"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Loomis, J.M., Klatzky, R.L., and Giudice, N.A. (2012). Assistive Technology for Blindness and low Vision, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2013.03.006","article-title":"Where\u2019s the action? The pragmatic turn in cognitive science","volume":"17","author":"Engel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"ITU (2023, March 14). Recommendation P.10: Vocabulary for Performance and Quality of Service and Quality of Experience. Telecommun. Stand. Sect. ITU-T 2017, 100, 1\u201342. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/T-REC-P.10."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"ITU-T (2023, March 14). Recommendation P.919: Subjective Test Methodologies for 360\u00b0 Video on Head-Mounted Display. 2020, 1\u201338. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/T-REC-P.919\/en."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"ITU-T (2023, March 14). Recommendation P.912: Subjective Video Quality Assessment Methods for Recognition Tasks. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/T-REC-P.912."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reichl, P., Egger, S., Schatz, R., and D\u2019Alconzo, A. (2010, January 23\u201327). The logarithmic nature of QoE and the role of the Weber-Fechner law in QoE assessment. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Communications, Cape Town, South Africa.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2010.5501894"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2018.2867835","article-title":"Haptic codecs for the tactile internet","volume":"107","author":"Steinbach","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Real, S., and Araujo, A. (2021). VES: A Mixed-Reality Development Platform of Navigation Systems for Blind and Visually Impaired. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21186275"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Real, S., and Araujo, A. (2020). VES: A Mixed-Reality System to Assist Multisensory Spatial Perception and Cognition for Blind and Visually Impaired People. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10020523"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1999.0942","article-title":"The perception of visual images encoded in musical form: A study in cross-modality information transfer","volume":"266","author":"Persaud","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Schinazi, V. (2008). Representing Space: The Development, Content and Accuracy of Mental Representations by the Blind and Visually Impaired, University College London."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00679","article-title":"Sensorimotor strategies for recognizing geometrical shapes: A comparative study with different sensory substitution devices","volume":"6","author":"Bermejo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2019.03.004","article-title":"Route selection and obstacle avoidance with a short-range haptic sensory substitution device","volume":"132","author":"Lobo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"813","article-title":"The \u201cEyeCane\u201d, a new electronic travel aid for the blind: Technology, behavior and swift learning","volume":"32","author":"Maidenbaum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.3233\/TAD-140414","article-title":"Do blind people move more confidently with the Tactile Radar?","volume":"26","author":"Cassinelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Technol. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"247","article-title":"EyeMusic: Introducing a \u201cvisual\u201d colorful experience for the blind using auditory sensory substitution","volume":"32","author":"Abboud","year":"2014","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1177\/0145482X1611000202","article-title":"The Functional Performance of the BrainPort V100 Device in Persons Who Are Profoundly Blind","volume":"110","author":"Grant","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vis. Impair. Blind."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/6\/3219\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:57:32Z","timestamp":1760122652000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/6\/3219"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s23063219"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23063219","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]]}}}