{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T11:06:25Z","timestamp":1776078385974,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,19]],"date-time":"2023-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687132800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of long-term diabetes, affecting the human eye and potentially leading to permanent blindness. The early detection of DR is crucial for effective treatment, as symptoms often manifest in later stages. The manual grading of retinal images is time-consuming, prone to errors, and lacks patient-friendliness. In this study, we propose two deep learning (DL) architectures, a hybrid network combining VGG16 and XGBoost Classifier, and the DenseNet 121 network, for DR detection and classification. To evaluate the two DL models, we preprocessed a collection of retinal images obtained from the APTOS 2019 Blindness Detection Kaggle Dataset. This dataset exhibits an imbalanced image class distribution, which we addressed through appropriate balancing techniques. The performance of the considered models was assessed in terms of accuracy. The results showed that the hybrid network achieved an accuracy of 79.50%, while the DenseNet 121 model achieved an accuracy of 97.30%. Furthermore, a comparative analysis with existing methods utilizing the same dataset revealed the superior performance of the DenseNet 121 network. The findings of this study demonstrate the potential of DL architectures for the early detection and classification of DR. The superior performance of the DenseNet 121 model highlights its effectiveness in this domain. The implementation of such automated methods can significantly improve the efficiency and accuracy of DR diagnosis, benefiting both healthcare providers and patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125726","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]],"date-time":"2023-06-20T02:26:56Z","timestamp":1687228016000},"page":"5726","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":162,"title":["Using Deep Learning Architectures for Detection and Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Cheena","family":"Mohanty","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Rourkela 769012, Odisha, India"}]},{"given":"Sakuntala","family":"Mahapatra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Trident Academy of Technology, Bhubaneswar 751016, Odisha, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6506-9207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Biswaranjan","family":"Acharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering-AI, Marwadi University, Rajkot 360003, Gujarat, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7884-9739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fotis","family":"Kokkoras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Digital Systems, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9895-7606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vassilis C.","family":"Gerogiannis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Digital Systems, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6106-6423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioannis","family":"Karamitsos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Graduate and Research, Rochester Institute of Technology, Dubai 341055, United Arab Emirates"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9964-4134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreas","family":"Kanavos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, Ionian University, 49100 Corfu, Greece"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2023, April 10). 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