{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T23:59:53Z","timestamp":1788047993061,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,24]],"date-time":"2023-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687564800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia","award":["APP1042464"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APP1042464"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The importance of investigating the health effects of RF radiation on the cornea cannot be overstated. This study aimed to address this need by utilizing a mathematical simulation to examine the absorption of millimeter wave (mmW) and terahertz (THz) waves by the cornea, considering both normal and pathological conditions. The simulation incorporated variations in tear film thickness and hydration levels, as these factors play a crucial role in corneal health. To assess the impact of RF radiation on the cornea, the study calculated temperature rises, which indicate heating effects for both dry and normal eyes. XFdtd, a widely used commercial software based on the Finite-Difference Time Domain (FDTD) method, was employed to evaluate the radiation absorption and resulting temperature changes. The outcomes of this study demonstrated a crucial finding, i.e., that changes in the water ratio and thickness of the tear film, which are associated with an increased risk of dry eye syndrome, directly impact the absorption of mmW and THz waves by the cornea. This insight provides valuable evidence supporting the interconnection between tear film properties and the vulnerability of the cornea to RF radiation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23135853","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,26]],"date-time":"2023-06-26T05:11:54Z","timestamp":1687756314000},"page":"5853","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The Effects of mmW and THz Radiation on Dry Eyes: A Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) Computational Simulation Using XFdtd"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0776-982X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Negin","family":"Foroughimehr","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"6G Research and Innovation Lab, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8378-1863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zoltan","family":"Vilagosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"6G Research and Innovation Lab, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0588-5931","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Yavari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"6G Research and Innovation Lab, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"},{"name":"School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1122-6526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Wood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"6G Research and Innovation Lab, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acharyya, A., Biswas, A., and Inokawa, H. (2022). New Horizons in Millimeter-Wave, Infrared and Terahertz Technologies, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-6301-8"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bauer, M., and Friederich, F. (2022). Terahertz and Millimeter Wave Sensing and Applications. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22249693"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbasi, Q.H., Jilani, S.F., Alomainy, A., and Imran, M.A. (2020). Antennas and Propagation for 5G and Beyond, Institution of Engineering and Technology.","DOI":"10.1049\/PBTE093E"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.2000273","article-title":"IEEE 802.15. 3d: First standardization efforts for sub-terahertz band communications toward 6G","volume":"58","author":"Petrov","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00fcrner, T., Mittleman, D.M., and Nagatsuma, T. (2022). THz Communications: Paving the Way Towards Wireless Tbps, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-73738-2"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foroughimehr, N., Vilagosh, Z., Yavari, A., and Wood, A. (2022). Investigating the Impact of Synchrotron THz Radiation on the Corneal Hydration Using Synchrotron THz-Far Infrared Beamline. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218261"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13750-023-00304-3","article-title":"What evidence exists on the impact of anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on animals and plants in the environment: A systematic map","volume":"12","author":"Karipidis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Evid."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6389","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/52\/21\/003","article-title":"Temperature elevation in the eye of anatomically based human head models for plane-wave exposures","volume":"52","author":"Hirata","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.21973","article-title":"Detailed modeling of palpebral fissure and its influence on SAR and temperature rise in human eye under GHz exposures","volume":"37","author":"Diao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5007","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/51\/19\/018","article-title":"Modelling the impact of blood flow on the temperature distribution in the human eye and the orbit: Fixed heat transfer coefficients versus the Pennes bioheat model versus discrete blood vessels","volume":"51","author":"Flyckt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.21835","article-title":"Dosimetric study on eye\u2019s exposure to wide band radio frequency electromagnetic fields: Variability by the ocular axial length","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3393","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/54\/11\/008","article-title":"Assessment of the computational uncertainty of temperature rise and SAR in the eyes and brain under far-field exposure from 1 to 10 GHz","volume":"54","author":"Laakso","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"ARPANSA (2021). The Radiation Protection Standard for Limiting Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields\u2014100 kHz to 300 GHz- Radiation Protection Series S-1 (Rev.1)."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.4103\/IJO.IJO_2597_22","article-title":"Impact of salivary stimulation on tear film function in dry eye subjects","volume":"71","author":"Sah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtos.2017.05.003","article-title":"Tfos dews ii epidemiology report","volume":"15","author":"Stapleton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocul. Surf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barnes, F.S., and Greenebaum, B. (2018). Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields-Two Volume Set, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315217734"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1007\/s10762-014-0142-4","article-title":"Characteristics of ocular temperature elevations after exposure to quasi-and millimeter waves (18\u201340 GHz)","volume":"36","author":"Kojima","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infrared Millim. Terahertz Waves"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ICNIRP (2020). Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz). Health Phys., 118, 483\u2013524.","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000001210"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1007\/s10762-018-0511-5","article-title":"Thermal impact on the human oral cavity exposed to radiation from biomedical devices operating in the terahertz frequency range","volume":"39","author":"Spathmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infrared Millim. Terahertz Waves"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/58\/2\/373","article-title":"The influence of high intensity terahertz radiation on mammalian cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation","volume":"58","author":"Williams","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12301","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0604897103","article-title":"Solute-induced retardation of water dynamics probed directly by terahertz spectroscopy","volume":"103","author":"Heugen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vilagosh, Z., Lajevardipour, A., Appadoo, D., Ng, S.H., Juodkazis, S., and Wood, A.W. (2020). Characterisation of Biological Materials at THz Frequencies by Attenuated Total Reflection: Lard. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10238692"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"31","article-title":"Estimating the dielectric parameters of water and gel using reflectance and transmission at 1.85 to 2.07 THz","volume":"Volume 11925","author":"Vilagosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomedical Imaging and Sensing Conference 2021"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Taflove, A., and Hagness, S.C. (2000). Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.10.001462","article-title":"Computational simulations of the penetration of 0.30 THz radiation into the human ear","volume":"10","author":"Vilagosh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.22169","article-title":"Computational phantom study of frozen melanoma imaging at 0.45 terahertz","volume":"40","author":"Vilagosh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.377424","article-title":"Computational absorption and reflection studies of normal human skin at 0.45 THz","volume":"11","author":"Vilagosh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.3390\/dermato3010006","article-title":"FDTD Simulations of Sweat Ducts and Hair at 0.45 THz","volume":"3","author":"Vilagosh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dermato"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"377","article-title":"A numerical evaluation of SAR distribution and temperature changes around a metallic plate in the head of a RF exposed worker","volume":"26","author":"McIntosh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bioelectromagn. J. Bioelectromagn. Soc. Soc. Phys. Regul. Biol. Med. Eur. Bioelectromagn. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.21846","article-title":"Significant RF-EMF and thermal levels observed in a computational model of a person with a tibial plate for grounded 40 MHz exposure","volume":"35","author":"McIntosh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foroughimehr, N., Vilagosh, Z., Yavari, A., and Wood, A. (2022). The Impact of Base Cell Size Setup on the Finite Difference Time Domain Computational Simulation of Human Cornea Exposed to Millimeter Wave Radiation at Frequencies above 30 GHz. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155924"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holland, E.J., Mannis, M.J., and Lee, W.B. (2013). Ocular Surface Disease: Cornea, Conjunctiva and Tear Film: Expert Consult-Online and Print, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4557-2876-3.00058-4"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2007.03.055","article-title":"Tear evaporation rates in Sj\u00f6gren syndrome and non-Sj\u00f6gren dry eye patients","volume":"144","author":"Goto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Freddo, T.F., and Chaum, E. (2017). Anatomy of the Eye and Orbit: The Clinical Essentials, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9071.2010.02363.x","article-title":"Anatomy and physiology of the human eye: Effects of mucopolysaccharidoses disease on structure and function\u2014A review","volume":"38","author":"Willoughby","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6273","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/60\/16\/6273","article-title":"Dielectric property measurement of ocular tissues up to 110 GHz using 1 mm coaxial sensor","volume":"60","author":"Sasaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.412769","article-title":"Dielectric property measurements of corneal tissues for computational dosimetry of the eye in terahertz band in vivo and in vitro","volume":"12","author":"Mizuno","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47006","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3570648","article-title":"Development of a compact terahertz time-domain spectrometer for the measurement of the optical properties of biological tissues","volume":"16","author":"Wilmink","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4739","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/59\/16\/4739","article-title":"Measurement of the dielectric properties of the epidermis and dermis at frequencies from 0.5 GHz to 110 GHz","volume":"59","author":"Sasaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14TR01","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ac7b64","article-title":"Measurement and image-based estimation of dielectric properties of biological tissues\u2014past, present, and future\u2014","volume":"67","author":"Sasaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/13\/5853\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:59:40Z","timestamp":1760126380000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/13\/5853"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,24]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s23135853"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23135853","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,24]]}}}