{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T17:11:07Z","timestamp":1791825067254,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]],"date-time":"2023-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688601600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Centre for Research and Development","award":["DOB-SZAFIR\/10\/A\/022\/01\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DOB-SZAFIR\/10\/A\/022\/01\/2021"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The quality of inland waters has a significant influence on human life and the functioning of the environment. The disasters that result from water pollution may cause major financial losses and lead to irreversible changes in the ecosystem, such as the dying out of endemic species of plants and animals. Quick detection of pollution sources may minimise those negative effects and reduce the costs of their elimination. The study presents a constellation design that provides imagery in the optic range and that might supplement the point water quality measurements that are conducted in situ. The area of interest was the southern catchment of the Baltic Sea and the main rivers in the region. The requirements for the designed mission were defined in reference to the remote sensing needs concerning the monitoring of water quality, the characteristics of the analysed area, and weather conditions. Based on these requirements, the Simera Sense MultiScape100 CIS sensor and the M6P nanosatellite manufactured by NanoAvionics were selected. The authors proposed a process for selecting the optimum orbit, taking into account the area of interest, the possibilities of the satellite platform, and of the sensor\u2019s optics. As a result of the analyses, four concepts of creating a constellation were presented. Each constellation consisted of four nanosatellites. The designs were then subjected to performance analysis, considering the lighting limitations. Among the proposed systems, the constellation designed by the authors was distinguished; it used four orbital planes and achieved the coverage and availability of imagery in the time that was best suited to monitoring the waters. Thanks to a small number of platforms, the costs of the mission are relatively low, and it might significantly improve awareness of the current state of surface waters in the southern catchment of the Baltic Sea.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23136192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,7]],"date-time":"2023-07-07T01:57:09Z","timestamp":1688695029000},"page":"6192","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Design and Performance Analysis of a Constellation of Nanosatellites to Monitor Water Quality in the Southern Catchment of the Baltic Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Karolina","family":"Kwapie\u0144","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of IMINT, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrycja","family":"Lasota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of IMINT, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0684-3717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"K\u0119dzierski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of IMINT, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piotr","family":"Walczykowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of IMINT, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Mauro, A., Scozzari, A., and Soldovieri, F. (2022). Instrumentation and Measurement Technologies for Water Cycle Management, Springer. Springer Water.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-08262-7"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1785","article-title":"Industrial Pollution Areas Detection and Location via Satellite-Based IioT","volume":"17","author":"Wan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2022, October 30). SeaWiFS Project, Available online: https:\/\/oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov\/SeaWiFS\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"ESA (2022, October 25). Managing Our Water Resources from Space. Available online: https:\/\/www.esa.int\/Applications\/Observing_the_Earth\/Managing_our_water_resources_from_space?fbclid=IwAR28pBBofd3EGMt7EgkNGlpcoVNsF0Ct7Oj3TA2MKkk86M33J2jMJCetH8s."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"ESA (2022, October 25). Monitoring Water Resources in the Mediterranean. Available online: https:\/\/www.esa.int\/Applications\/Observing_the_Earth\/Monitoring_water_resources_in_the_Mediterranean?fbclid=IwAR1tQ7dL9_jAuQLThkix70UPBHS1Pv9lW-9FCw1KZIHoKyJd6a5OD3hFqns."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostianoy, A.G., Lavrova, O.Y., Mityagina, M.I., Solovyov, D.M., and Lebedev, S.A. (2014). Satellite Monitoring of Oil Pollution in the South-eastern Baltic Sea, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/698_2013_236"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"182","article-title":"Operational satellite monitoring of oil spill pollution in the southeastern Baltic Sea","volume":"1","author":"Kostianoy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Hejmanowska, B., and W\u0119\u017cyk, P. (2023, April 13). Dane Satelitarne dla Administracji Publicznej, Available online: https:\/\/polsa.gov.pl\/wp-content\/themes\/polsa\/files\/Podrecznik.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazreg, N., and Besbes, K. (2016, January 21\u201323). Design and architecture of Pico-satellites network for earth coverage. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advanced Technologies for Signal and Image Processing (ATSIP), ATSIP 2016, Monastir, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ATSIP.2016.7523152"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"257","article-title":"Water Quality Monitoring based on Small Satellite Technology","volume":"8","author":"Gallah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl. IJACSA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2017.11.019","article-title":"Analysis and design of Cubesat constellation for the Mediterranean south costal monitoring against illegal immigration","volume":"61","author":"Lazreg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Sp. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2021.3124473","article-title":"Regional CubeSat Constellation Design to Monitor Hurricanes","volume":"60","author":"Chadalavada","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2017.12.050","article-title":"CubeSat constellations for disaster management in remote areas","volume":"145","author":"Santilli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2017.07.046","article-title":"SWEET CubeSat\u2014Water detection and water quality monitoring for the 21st century","volume":"140","author":"Antonini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4233","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-23-4233-2019","article-title":"River-ice and water velocities using the Planet optical cubesat constellation","volume":"23","author":"Altena","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gholizadeh, M.H., Melesse, A.M., and Reddi, L. (2016). A comprehensive review on water quality parameters estimation using remote sensing techniques. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081298"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Hydzik, P., and Walawender, P. (2014). Badania Przestrzeni Kosmicznej a Innowacje i Wzrost Gospodarczy, BD Center. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/272496790_Teledetekcja_w_badaniach_jakosci_wod_srodladowych."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"14","article-title":"Analysis of SPOT-5 Data for Mapping Turbidity Level of River Klang","volume":"1","author":"Hasmadi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.145053","article-title":"Hot moments and hotspots of cyanobacteria hyperblooms in the Curonian Lagoon (SE Baltic Sea) revealed via remote sensing-based retrospective analysis","volume":"769","author":"Bresciani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Kawecka, B., and Eloranta, P.V. (1994). Zarys Ekologii Glon\u00f3w w\u00f3d S\u0142odkich i \u015arodowisk, L\u0105dowych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00042-X","article-title":"Simulation of AVIRIS Sensitivity for Detecting Chlorophyll over Coastal and Inland Waters","volume":"65","author":"Hoogenboom","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.04.015","article-title":"A simple semi-analytical model for remote estimation of chlorophyll-a in turbid waters: Validation","volume":"112","author":"Gitelson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"191","article-title":"Water quality retrieval and algal bloom detection using high-resolution CubeSat imagery","volume":"3","author":"Bovolo","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.812907","article-title":"Satellite hyperspectral remote sensing for estimating estuarine and coastal water quality","volume":"41","author":"Brando","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.108180","article-title":"Remote sensing estimation of the concentration and sources of coloured dissolved organic matter based on MODIS: A case study of Erhai lake","volume":"131","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4677","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701442062","article-title":"Application of the Active Learning Method for the estimation of geophysical variables in the Caspian Sea from satellite ocean colour observations","volume":"28","author":"Shahraiyni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2016.02.076","article-title":"The new Landsat 8 potential for remote sensing of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM)","volume":"107","author":"Slonecker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, December 27). Zanieczyszczenia|Nasz Ba\u0142tyk. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Washburn, A.R. (2023, April 13). Earth Coverage by Satellites in Circular Orbit. Available online: https:\/\/faculty.nps.edu\/awashburn\/Files\/Notes\/EARTHCOV.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Walker, J.G. (1977). Continuous Whole-Earth Coverage by Circular-Orbit Satellite Patterns, Royal Aircraft Establishment."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Walker, J.G. (1970). Circular Orbit Patterns Providing Continuous Whole Earth Coverage, Royal Aircraft Establishment. Available online: https:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/sti\/pdfs\/AD0722776.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2023, April 13). MultiScape100 CIS|Satellite Payloads|Cubesat Imager. Available online: https:\/\/simera-sense.com\/products\/multiscape100-cis\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2023, April 13). HyperScape100|Satellite Payloads|CubeSat Imager. Available online: https:\/\/simera-sense.com\/products\/hyperscape100\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2023, April 13). Caiman Imager\u2014Dragonfly Aerospace. Available online: https:\/\/dragonflyaerospace.com\/products\/caiman\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Brouwer, H., Dimitriadis, G., Oei, H.Y., Groot, Z.D., Nemeth, F., Bouwer, P., and Prinsloo, T. (2022, January 6\u201311). Multi-Spectral Imaging from LEO: High-Resolution Images and Data from the NAPA-2 Turn-Key Mission. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Small Satellite Conference, Logan, UT, USA. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.usu.edu\/smallsat\/2022\/all2022\/110."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2023, April 13). 6U Nanosatellite Bus M6P|NanoAvionics. Available online: https:\/\/nanoavionics.com\/small-satellite-buses\/6u-nanosatellite-bus-m6p\/."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sebestyen, G., Fujikawa, S., Galassi, N., and Chuchra, A. (2018). Low Earth Orbit Satellite Design, Springer International Publishing AG.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-68315-7"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2023, June 25). KSAT Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.ksat.no\/."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2023, June 25). LeafSpace Website. Available online: https:\/\/leaf.space\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2023, June 25). RBC Signals. Available online: https:\/\/rbcsignals.com\/."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/13\/6192\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:07:20Z","timestamp":1760126840000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/13\/6192"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s23136192"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23136192","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]}}}