{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T07:58:20Z","timestamp":1793779100320,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]],"date-time":"2023-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697760000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of this scoping review is to evaluate and summarize the existing literature that considers the validity and\/or reliability of smartphone accelerometer applications when compared to \u2018gold standard\u2019 kinematic data collection (for example, motion capture). An electronic keyword search was performed on three databases to identify appropriate research. This research was then examined for details of measures and methodology and general study characteristics to identify related themes. No restrictions were placed on the date of publication, type of smartphone, or participant demographics. In total, 21 papers were reviewed to synthesize themes and approaches used and to identify future research priorities. The validity and reliability of smartphone-based accelerometry data have been assessed against motion capture, pressure walkways, and IMUs as \u2018gold standard\u2019 technology and they have been found to be accurate and reliable. This suggests that smartphone accelerometers can provide a cheap and accurate alternative to gather kinematic data, which can be used in ecologically valid environments to potentially increase diversity in research participation. However, some studies suggest that body placement may affect the accuracy of the result, and that position data correlate better than actual acceleration values, which should be considered in any future implementation of smartphone technology. Future research comparing different capture frequencies and resulting noise, and different walking surfaces, would be useful.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23208615","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,21]],"date-time":"2023-10-21T12:59:48Z","timestamp":1697893188000},"page":"8615","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["A Scoping Review of the Validity and Reliability of Smartphone Accelerometers When Collecting Kinematic Gait Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0334-7961","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clare","family":"Strongman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2391-3657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Cavallerio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew A.","family":"Timmis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2286-6676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Morrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cambridge Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weygers, I., Kok, M., Konings, M., Hallez, H., De Vroey, H., and Claeys, K. (2020). Inertial Sensor-Based Lower Limb Joint Kinematics: A Methodological Systematic Review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030673"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-020-00685-3","article-title":"Validity and reliability of wearable inertial sensors in healthy adult walking: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Kobsar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2018.04.047","article-title":"The use of wearable devices for walking and running gait analysis outside of the lab: A systematic review","volume":"63","author":"Benson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1177\/09544119221142327","article-title":"A scoping review on recent trends in wearable sensors to analyze gait in people with stroke: From sensor placement to validation against gold-standard equipment","volume":"237","author":"Mathunny","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peters, J., Abou, L., Wong, E., Senan Dossou, M., Sosnoff, J.J., and Rice, L.A. Smartphone-based gait and balance assessment in survivors of stroke: A systematic review. Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol., 2022.","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2022.2072527"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-021-01760-5","article-title":"Gait and Balance Assessments using Smartphone Applications in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review","volume":"45","author":"Abou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.102943","article-title":"Smartphone applications to assess gait and postural control in people with multiple sclerosis: A systematic review","volume":"51","author":"Abou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcm.2016.02.012","article-title":"A Guideline of Selecting and Reporting Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for Reliability Research","volume":"15","author":"Koo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chiropr. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/1364557032000119616","article-title":"Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework","volume":"8","author":"Arksey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/1748-5908-5-69","article-title":"Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology","volume":"5","author":"Levac","year":"2010","journal-title":"Implement Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.11124\/JBIES-21-00242","article-title":"Best Practice Guidance and Reporting Items for the Development of Scoping Review Protocols","volume":"20","author":"Peters","year":"2022","journal-title":"JBI Evid. Synth."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2019.102562","article-title":"A scoping review of non-linear analysis approaches measuring variability in gait due to lower body injury or dysfunction","volume":"69","author":"Strongman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Littell, J., Corcoran, J., and Pillai, V. (2008). Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195326543.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-018-0611-x","article-title":"Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach","volume":"18","author":"Munn","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Med. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Bacco, V.E., and Gage, W.H. (2023). Evaluation of a smartphone accelerometer system for measuring nonlinear dynamics during treadmill walking: Concurrent validity and test-retest reliability. J. Biomech., 151.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2023.111527"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2022.11.014","article-title":"Smartphone-based gait and balance accelerometry is sensitive to age and correlates with clinical and kinematic data","volume":"100","author":"Olsen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grouios, G., Ziagkas, E., Loukovitis, A., Chatzinikolaou, K., and Koidou, E. (2022). Accelerometers in Our Pocket: Does Smartphone Accelerometer Technology Provide Accurate Data?. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010192"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-022-03300-4","article-title":"The validity and reliability of the OneStep smartphone application under various gait conditions in healthy adults with feasibility in clinical practice","volume":"17","author":"Christensen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2022.110882","article-title":"A novel smartphone application is reliable for repeat administration and comparable to the Tekscan Strideway for spatiotemporal gait","volume":"192","author":"Kelly","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2022.01.024","article-title":"Smartphone-based inertial sensors technology\u2014Validation of a new application to measure spatiotemporal gait metrics","volume":"93","author":"Beer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rashid, U., Barbado, D., Olsen, S., Alder, G., Elvira, J.L.L., Lord, S., Niazi, I.K., and Taylor, D. (2021). Validity and Reliability of a Smartphone App for Gait and Balance Assessment. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22010124"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahar, R.T., and Agmon, M. (2021). Gait Analysis Using Accelerometry Data from a Single Smartphone: Agreement and Consistency between a Smartphone Application and Gold-Standard Gait Analysis System. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227497"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alberto, S., Cabral, S., Proen\u00e7a, J., Pona-Ferreira, F., Leit\u00e3o, M., Bou\u00e7a-Machado, R., Kauppila, L.A., Veloso, A.P., Costa, R.M., and Ferreira, J.J. (2021). Validation of quantitative gait analysis systems for Parkinson\u2019s disease for use in supervised and unsupervised environments. BMC Neurol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-021-02354-x"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1123\/japa.2020-0353","article-title":"Three-Day Remote Monitoring of Gait Among Young and Older Adults Using Participants\u2019 Personal Smartphones","volume":"29","author":"Lugade","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Aging Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25451","DOI":"10.2196\/25451","article-title":"Simple Smartphone-Based Assessment of Gait Characteristics in Parkinson Disease: Validation Study","volume":"9","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"JMIR mHealth uHealth"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560577","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2020.560577","article-title":"Smartphone Monitoring of Gait and Balance During Irregular Surface Walking and Obstacle Crossing","volume":"2","author":"Kuntapun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Sports Act. Living"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2019.2930091","article-title":"Smartphone-Based Assessment of Gait During Straight Walking, Turning, and Walking Speed Modulation in Laboratory and Free-Living Environments","volume":"24","author":"Silsupadol","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1080\/00913847.2019.1632155","article-title":"Determining the utility of a smartphone-based gait evaluation for possible use in concussion management","volume":"48","author":"Howell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Sportsmed."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tchelet, K., Stark-Inbar, A., and Yekutieli, Z. (2019). Pilot Study of the EncephaLog Smartphone Application for Gait Analysis. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19235179"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2017.09.030","article-title":"Reliability and validity of a smartphone-based assessment of gait parameters across walking speed and smartphone locations: Body, bag, belt, hand, and pocket","volume":"58","author":"Silsupadol","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2017.06.011","article-title":"Gait parameter and event estimation using smartphones","volume":"57","author":"Pepa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellis, R.J., Ng, Y.S., Zhu, S., Tan, D.M., Anderson, B., Schlaug, G., and Wang, Y. (2015). A Validated Smartphone-Based Assessment of Gait and Gait Variability in Parkinson\u2019s Disease. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0141694"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2015.06.003","article-title":"Validation of a smartphone-based measurement tool for the quantification of level walking","volume":"42","author":"Furrer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2014.06.014","article-title":"A smart device inertial-sensing method for gait analysis","volume":"47","author":"Steins","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1089\/tmj.2011.0132","article-title":"Reliability and validity of gait analysis by android-based smartphone","volume":"18","author":"Nishiguchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Telemed. J. E Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.30621\/jbachs.1097400","article-title":"Gender Differences in Gait Parameters of Healthy Adult Individuals","volume":"7","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Basic Clin. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"5284","article-title":"Clinical measures and gait parameters in individuals with knee Osteoarthritis: A comparison between men and women","volume":"21","author":"Dionisio","year":"2023","journal-title":"Obs. Econ. Latinoam."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monfrini, R., Rossetto, G., Scalona, E., Galli, M., Cimolin, V., and Lopomo, N.F. (2023). Technological Solutions for Human Movement Analysis in Obese Subjects: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23063175"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Android Developers (2023, October 10). Sensor Manager. Available online: developer.android.com\/reference\/android\/hardware\/SensorManager."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2007.10.010","article-title":"Accelerometry: A technique for quantifying movement patterns during walking","volume":"28","author":"Kavanagh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.00333","article-title":"Fractal Analysis of Human Gait Variability via Stride Time Interval Time Series","volume":"11","author":"Phinyomark","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stergiou, N. (2016). Nonlinear Analysis for Human Movement Variability, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b19571"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1","article-title":"A simplified guide to determination of sample size requirements for estimating the value of intraclass correlation coefficient: A review","volume":"12","author":"Bujang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Orofac. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e36","DOI":"10.2196\/mhealth.8815","article-title":"Smartphone App-Based Assessment of Gait During Normal and Dual-Task Walking: Demonstration of Validity and Reliability","volume":"6","author":"Manor","year":"2018","journal-title":"JMIR mHealth uHealth"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(02)00190-X","article-title":"Assessment of spatio-temporal gait parameters from trunk accelerations during human walking","volume":"18","author":"Zijlstra","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Munro, B. (2005). Statistical Methods for Health Care Research, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.6.4.284","article-title":"Guidelines, criteria, and rules of thumb for evaluating normed and standardized assessment instruments in psychology","volume":"6","author":"Cicchetti","year":"1994","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.86.2.420","article-title":"Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability","volume":"86","author":"Shrout","year":"1979","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stergiou, N. (2016). Nonlinear Analysis for Human Movement Variability, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b19571"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghaffari, A., Rahbek, O., Lauritsen, R.E.K., Kappel, A., Kold, S., and Rasmussen, J. (2022). Criterion Validity of Linear Accelerations Measured with Low-Sampling-Frequency Accelerometers during Overground Walking in Elderly Patients with Knee Osteoarthritis. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145289"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-015-0002-z","article-title":"Self-selected gait speed\u2014Over ground versus self-paced treadmill walking, a solution for a paradox","volume":"12","author":"Plotnik","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.07.379","article-title":"Words matter: Instructions dictate \u201cself-selected\u201d walking speed in young adults","volume":"95","author":"Brinkerhoff","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Redmayne, M. (2017). Where\u2019s Your Phone? A Survey of Where Women Aged 15-40 Carry Their Smartphone and Related Risk Perception: A Survey and Pilot Study. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0167996"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2006.04.003","article-title":"Video task analysis of turning during activities of daily living","volume":"25","author":"Glaister","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2019.05.006","article-title":"Gait events during turning can be detected using kinematic features originally proposed for the analysis of straight-line walking","volume":"91","author":"Ulrich","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2994","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2018.1483429","article-title":"Turning problems and freezing of gait in Parkinson\u2019s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"41","author":"Spildooren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4316","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-22492-6","article-title":"Natural turn measures predict recurrent falls in community-dwelling older adults: A longitudinal cohort study","volume":"8","author":"Leach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moher, D. (2018). Reporting guidelines: Doing better for readers. BMC Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-018-1226-0"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23909","article-title":"Intraclass correlation: Improved modeling approaches and applications for neuroimaging","volume":"39","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2008.09.032","article-title":"Correlation, agreement, and Bland-Altman analysis: Statistical analysis of method comparison studies","volume":"148","author":"Bunce","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/s40814-023-01345-8","article-title":"The mysterious case of the disappearing pilot study: A review of publication bias in preliminary behavioral interventions presented at health behavior conferences","volume":"9","author":"Ramey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pilot Feasibility Stud."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/20\/8615\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:09:25Z","timestamp":1760130565000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/20\/8615"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s23208615"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23208615","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,20]]}}}