{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T17:17:22Z","timestamp":1790875042308,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]],"date-time":"2023-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033 and by \u201cERDF A way of making Europe\u201d","award":["PID2021-128373OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2021-128373OB-I00"]}]},{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033 and by \u201cERDF A way of making Europe\u201d","award":["CPP2021-008648"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CPP2021-008648"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2021-128373OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2021-128373OB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CPP2021-008648"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CPP2021-008648"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) technology is evolving at a rapid pace. The rapid advancement demands rapid prototyping tools to conduct research on new and innovative signals and systems. However, researchers need to deal with the increasing complexity and integration level of GNSS integrated circuits (IC), resulting in limited access to modify or inspect any internal aspect of the receiver. To address these limitations, the authors designed a low-cost System-on-Chip Field-Programmable Gate Array (SoC-FPGA) architecture for prototyping experimental GNSS receivers. The proposed architecture combines the flexibility of software-defined radio (SDR) techniques and the energy efficiency of FPGAs, enabling the development of compact, portable, multi-channel, multi-constellation GNSS receivers for testing novel and non-standard GNSS features with live signals. This paper presents the proposed architecture and design methodology, reviewing the practical application of a spaceborne GNSS receiver and a GNSS rebroadcaster, and introducing the design and initial performance evaluation of a general purpose GNSS receiver serving as a testbed for future research. The receiver is tested, demonstrating the ability of the receiver to acquire and track GNSS signals using static and low Earth orbit (LEO)-scenarios, assessing the observables\u2019 quality and the accuracy of the navigation solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23239483","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]],"date-time":"2023-11-28T11:43:16Z","timestamp":1701171796000},"page":"9483","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["A Flexible System-on-Chip Field-Programmable Gate Array Architecture for Prototyping Experimental Global Navigation Satellite System Receivers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6161-6747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Majoral","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Tecnol\u00f2gic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC\/CERCA), Parc Mediterrani de la Tecnologia\u2014Building B4, Av. Carl Friedrich Gauss 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9201-7007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carles","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Tecnol\u00f2gic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC\/CERCA), Parc Mediterrani de la Tecnologia\u2014Building B4, Av. Carl Friedrich Gauss 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6346-3406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Arribas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Tecnol\u00f2gic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC\/CERCA), Parc Mediterrani de la Tecnologia\u2014Building B4, Av. Carl Friedrich Gauss 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11135","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3243207","article-title":"A Survey on IoT Positioning Leveraging LPWAN, GNSS, and LEO-PNT","volume":"10","author":"Janssen","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogaja, C.A. (2022). Introduction to GNSS Geodesy: Foundations of Precise Positioning Using Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-91821-7"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimazu, K., Makabe, K., Nishii, N., Mori, R., Harada, N., Sashida, H., and Oikawa, K. (2020, January 7\u201314). Emergency Warning Services via GNSS Signals. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO47225.2020.9172377"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2023.104120","article-title":"An automated driving systems data acquisition and analytics platform","volume":"151","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4307","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2023.3298892","article-title":"Integrated Inertial-LiDAR-Based Map Matching Localization for Varying Environments","volume":"8","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4069","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2023.3282567","article-title":"HYDRO-3D: Hybrid Object Detection and Tracking for Cooperative Perception Using 3D LiDAR","volume":"8","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Arribas, J., Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., and Closas, P. (2015, January 14\u201318). GESTALT: A Testbed For Experimentation And Validation of GNSS Software Receivers. Proceedings of the 28th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2015), Tampa, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39939","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3165594","article-title":"GNSS User Technology: State-of-the-Art and Future Trends","volume":"10","author":"Pany","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., Arribas, J., Majoral, M., Vil\u00e0-Valls, J., Garc\u00eda-Rigo, A., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares, M. (2017, January 25\u201327). An Open Path from the Antenna to Scientific-grade GNSS Products. Proceedings of the 6th ESA Intl. Colloquium on Scientific and Fundamental Aspects of GNSS\/Galileo, Valencia, Spain."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Free and Open Source Software: Evolution, Benefits and Characteristics","volume":"1","author":"Khan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Emerg. Trends Technol. Comput. Sci. (IJETTCS)"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., Arribas, J., Closas, P., Aviles, C., and Luis, E. (2011, January 20\u201323). GNSS-SDR: An Open Source Tool for Researchers and Developers. Proceedings of the 24th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2011), Portlan, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"GNSS-SDR (2023, November 23). An Open-Source Global Navigation Satellite Systems Software-Defined Receiver. Available online: https:\/\/gnss-sdr.org\/."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3265841","article-title":"A Survey on Low-Power GNSS","volume":"25","author":"Grenier","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majoral, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., and Arribas, J. (2018, January 24\u201328). Implementation of GNSS Receiver Hardware Accelerators in All-programmable System-On-Chip Platforms. Proceedings of the 31st International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2018), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2018.16082"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., Arribas, J., Majoral, M., Ramos, A., Vil\u00e1-Valls, J., and Giordano, P. (2018, January 5\u20137). A Software-Defined Spaceborne GNSS Receiver. Proceedings of the 2018 9th ESA Workshop on Satellite NavigationTechnologies and European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing (NAVITEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC.2018.8642697"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majoral, M., Arribas, J., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C. (2022, January 5\u20137). Implementation of a GNSS Rebroadcaster in an All-Programmable System-On-Chip Platform. Proceedings of the 2022 10th Workshop on Satellite Navigation Technology (NAVITEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC53682.2022.9847537"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doberstein, D. (2012). Fundamentals of GPS Receivers: A Hardware Approach, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-0409-5"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsui, J. (2005). Fundamentals of Global Positioning System Receivers: A Software Approach, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0471712582"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Borre, K., Akos, D., Bertelsen, N., Rinder, P., and Jensen, S. (2007). A Software-Defined GPS and Galileo Receiver: A Single-Frequency Approach, Birkh\u00e4user. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Yu, L. (2021). BDS\/GPS Dual-Mode Software Receiver: Principles and Implementation Technology, Springer. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borre, K., Fern\u00e1ndez-Hern\u00e1ndez, I., L\u00f3pez-Salcedo, J.A., and Bhuiyan, M.Z.H. (2022). GNSS Software Receivers, Cambridge University Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108934176"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Krumvieda, K., Madhani, P., Cloman, C., Olson, E., Thomas, J., Axelrad, P., and Kober, W. (2001, January 11\u201314). A Complete IF Software GPS Receiver: A Tutorial about the Details. Proceedings of the 14th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 2001), Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00012887","article-title":"Software GPS Receiver","volume":"5","author":"Chakravarthy","year":"2001","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"979815","article-title":"Software-Defined Radio Technologies for GNSS Receivers: A Tutorial Approach to a Simple Design and Implementation","volume":"2011","author":"Principe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Navig. Obs."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Akos, D.M. (1997). A Software Radio Approach to Global Navigation Satellites System Receiver Design. [Ph.D. Thesis, Ohio University]. Available online: https:\/\/etd.ohiolink.edu\/acprod\/odb_etd\/etd\/r\/1501\/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=ohiou1174615606."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ledvina, B.M., Powell, S.P., Kintner, P.M., and Psiaki, M.L. (2003, January 22\u201324). A 12\u2013Channel Real\u2013Time GPS L1 Software Receiver. Proceedings of the 2003 National Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Anaheim, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Fantino, M., Molino, A., and Nicola, M. (2009, January 3\u20136). N-Gene GNSS Receiver: Benefits of Software Radio in Navigation. Proceedings of the European Navigation Conference (ENC 2009), Napoli, Italy."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"St\u00f6ber, C., Anghileri, M., Sicramaz Ayaz, A., D\u00f6tterb\u00f6ck, D., Kr\u00e4mer, I., Kropp, V., Won, J.H., Eissfeller, B., G\u00fcixens, D.S., and Pany, T. (2010, January 15\u201317). ipexSR: A real-time multi-frequency software GNSS receiver. Proceedings of the ELMAR-2010, Zadar, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamba, M.T., Nicola, M., and Falletti, E. (2015, January 22\u201324). Performance assessment of an ARM-based dual-constellation GNSS software receiver. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS), Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS.2015.7217143"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pei, Y., Chen, H., and Pei, B. (2018, January 21\u201324). Implementation of GPS Software Receiver Based on GNU Radio. Proceedings of the 2018 Cross Strait Quad-Regional Radio Science and Wireless Technology Conference (CSQRWC), Xuzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSQRWC.2018.8455475"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.5081\/jgps.7.2.156","article-title":"Architecture and Benefits of an Advanced GNSS Software Receiver","volume":"7","author":"Petovello","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Glob. Position. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-009-0135-2","article-title":"A GPU based real-time GPS software receiver","volume":"14","author":"Hobiger","year":"2010","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Tolman, B.W., Harris, R.B., Gaussiran, T., Munton, D., Jon, L., Mach, R., Nelsen, S., Renfro, B., and Schlossberg, D. (2004, January 21\u201324). The GPS Toolkit\u2026 Open Source GPS Software. Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2004), Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Kovar, P., and Vejrazka, F. (2004, January 16\u201318). Software radio and its applications in GNSS. Proceedings of the Elmar-2004\u201446th International Symposium on Electronics in Marine, Zadar, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2304352","article-title":"A Development and Testing Instrumentation for GPS Software Defined Radio with Fast FPGA Prototyping Support","volume":"63","author":"Soghoyan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garzia, F., R\u00fcgamer, A., Koch, R., Neumaier, P., Serezhkina, E., Overbeck, M., and Rohmer, G. (2014, January 2\u20134). Experimental multi-FPGA GNSS receiver platform. Proceedings of the 2014 24th International Conference on Field Programmable Logic and Applications (FPL), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/FPL.2014.6927399"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larosa, F.S. (2019, January 10\u201312). Design, Simulation, Implementation and Testing of Search and Tracking Modules for a FPGA-Based GPS Receiver. Proceedings of the 2019 X Southern Conference on Programmable Logic (SPL), Buenos Aires, Argentina.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPL.2019.8714299"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Keshihaa Rudra Gana Dev, V., and Ranjani, G. (2022, January 7\u20139). An Optimized FPGA Architecture for GPS Signal Acquisition. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 3rd Global Conference for Advancement in Technology (GCAT), Bangalore, India."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Spelat, M., Dovis, F., Girau, G., and Mulassano, P. (2006, January 12\u201315). A Flexible FPGA\/DSP Board for GNSS Receivers Design. Proceedings of the 2006 Ph.D. Research in Microelectronics and Electronics, Otranto, Italy."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grondin, M., Belasic, M., Ries, L., Issler, J.L., Bataille, P., Jobey, L., and Richard, G. (2010, January 8\u201310). A new operational low cost GNSS software receiver for microsatellites. Proceedings of the 2010 5th ESA Workshop on Satellite Navigation Technologies and European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing (NAVITEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC.2010.5707991"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Avanzi, A., Tortora, P., and Garcia-Rodriguez, A. (2011, January 20\u201323). Design and Implementation of a Novel Multi-constellation FPGA-based Dual Frequency GNSS Receiver for Space Applications. Proceedings of the 24th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2011), Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fantinato, S., Foglia, L., Iacone, P., Rovelli, D., Facchinetti, C., and Tuozzi, A. (2012, January 5\u20137). PEGASUS -GNSS receiver platform for safety of life user segment. Proceedings of the 2012 6th ESA Workshop on Satellite Navigation Technologies (Navitec 2012) & European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC.2012.6423062"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kappen, G., Haettich, C., and Meurer, M. (2012, January 23\u201326). Towards a robust multi-antenna mass market GNSS receiver. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium, Myrtle Beach, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2012.6236894"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B.S., Iv, S.W., Yang, D.K., and Zhang, Q.S. (2011, January 23\u201325). A New Solution to GNSS Receiver Baseband Signal Processing SOC Platform Based on OpenRISC Processor. Proceedings of the 2011 7th International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/wicom.2011.6040266"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raasakka, J., Hurskainen, H., and Nurmi, J. (2011, January 29\u201330). GNSS baseband processing in a multi-core platform. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS), Tampere, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS.2011.5955263"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fridman, A., and Semenov, S. (2013, January 27\u201330). System-on-Chip FPGA-based GNSS receiver. Proceedings of the East-West Design & Test Symposium (EWDTS 2013), Rostov on Don, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EWDTS.2013.6673192"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buttgereit, J., Schwarte, T., and Kappen, G.C. (2020, January 20\u201323). Design and Implementation of a Software Defined Radio GNSS Receiver Based on OpenCL. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS46316.2020.9110191"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Priot, B., Dion, A., Beaugendre, G., and Kasaraneni, R. (2019, January 4\u20136). Accurate Events Synchronization in a System-on-Chip Navigation Receiver. Proceedings of the International Conference on Localization and GNSS, Nuremberg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, K.Y., Juang, J.C., Tsai, Y.F., and Lin, C.T. (2021). Efficient FPGA Implementation of a Dual-Frequency GNSS Receiver with Robust Inter-Frequency Aiding. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21144634"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Guruprasad, S. (2022). FPGA-Based GNSS Receiver Design for Reflectometry Applications. [Ph.D. Thesis, York University]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kusswurm, D. (2014). Modern X86 Assembly Language Programming, Apress.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4842-0064-3"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K.C. (2023). Embedded and Real-Time Operating Systems, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-28701-5"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Crockett, L.H., Elliot, R.A., Enderwitz, M.A., and Stewart, R.W. (2014). The Zynq Book: Embedded Processing with the Arm Cortex-A9 on the Xilinx Zynq-7000 All Programmable Soc, Strathclyde Academic Media."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Crockett, L.H., Northcote, D., Ramsay, C., Robinson, F.D., and Stewart, R.W. (2019). Exploring Zynq MPSoC: With PYNQ and Machine Learning Applications, Strathclyde Academic Media."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). Zynq Ultrascale+ Device Technical Reference Manual. UG1085 (v2.3.1). Available online: https:\/\/docs.xilinx.com\/r\/en-US\/ug1085-zynq-ultrascale-trm\/Introduction-to-the-UltraScale-Architecture."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). Zynq-7000 All Programmable SoC Technical Reference Manual. UG585 (v1.14). Available online: https:\/\/docs.xilinx.com\/r\/en-US\/ug585-zynq-7000-SoC-TRM."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). Zynq-7000 SoC Product Selection Guide. XMP097 (v1.3.2). Available online: https:\/\/docs.xilinx.com\/v\/u\/en-US\/zynq-7000-product-selection-guide."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). Zynq Ultrascale+ MPSoC Product Tables and Product Selection Guide. XMP104 (v2.6). Available online: https:\/\/docs.xilinx.com\/v\/u\/en-US\/zynq-ultrascale-plus-product-selection-guide."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Arribas, J. (2012). GNSS Array-Based Acquisition: Theory and Implementation. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC)]."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Kaplan, E., and Hegarty, C. (2017). Understanding GPS\/GNSS: Principles and Applications, Artech House, Inc.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., Arribas, J., Esteve, L., Pubill, D., and Closas, P. (2012, January 5\u20137). An open source Galileo E1 software receiver. Proceedings of the 2012 6th ESA Workshop on Satellite Navigation Technologies (Navitec 2012) & European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC.2012.6423057"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"GNU Radio (2023, November 23). A Free & Open-Source Software Development Toolkit. Available online: http:\/\/gnuradio.org."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). Vivado Design Suite User Guide: Release Notes, Installation, and Licensing. UG973 (v2022.2). Available online: https:\/\/www.xilinx.com\/support\/documents\/sw_manuals\/xilinx2022_1\/ug973-vivado-release-notes-install-license.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). AMD University Program. Available online: https:\/\/www.amd.com\/en\/corporate\/university-program.html."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). Vitis High-Level Synthesis User Guide. UG1399 (v2023.1). Available online: https:\/\/docs.xilinx.com\/r\/2023.1-English\/ug1399-vitis-hls."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Analog Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). HDL Reference Designs. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.analog.com\/resources\/fpga\/docs\/arch."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). PetaLinux Tools Documentation Reference Guide. UG1144 (v2023.2). Available online: https:\/\/docs.xilinx.com\/r\/2023.1-English\/ug1144-petalinux-tools-reference-guide\/Overview."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Salvador, O., and Angolini, D. (2017). Embedded Linux Development Using Yocto Projects\u2014Second Edition: Learn to Leverage the Power of Yocto Project to Build Efficient Linux-Based Products, Packt Publishing. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Analog Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). ADRV936x System on Module (SOM) SDR User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.analog.com\/resources\/eval\/user-guides\/adrv936x_rfsom."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Analog Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). AD9361 Reference Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/media\/en\/technical-documentation\/user-guides\/ad9361.pdf."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Advanced Micro Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). ZCU102 Evaluation Board User Guide. UG1182 (v1.7). Available online: https:\/\/www.xilinx.com\/support\/documents\/boards_and_kits\/zcu102\/ug1182-zcu102-eval-bd.pdf."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Analog Devices Inc. (2023, November 23). AD-FMCOMMS5-EBZ User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.analog.com\/resources\/eval\/user-guides\/ad-fmcomms5-ebz."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Abracon LLC (2023, November 23). Abracon AST3TQ-T-40.000MHZ-50-C Datasheet. Rev. 04.02.15. Available online: https:\/\/abracon.com\/Oscillators\/AST3TQ.pdf."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Tallysman Wireless Inc. (2023, November 23). TW8825 Datasheet. Rev. 1.2. Available online: https:\/\/www.tallysman.com\/app\/uploads\/2019\/10\/TW8825_Datasheet_rev1_2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Arribas, J. (2023, November 23). GNSS-SIMULATOR. A Modular Multichannel GNSS Simulator Written in C++. Available online: https:\/\/bitbucket.org\/jarribas\/gnss-simulator\/src\/master\/."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2161-4296.1992.tb02276.x","article-title":"Theory and Performance of Narrow Correlator Spacing in a GPS Receiver","volume":"39","author":"Fenton","year":"1992","journal-title":"NAVIGATION J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"NovAtel Inc. (2023, November 23). GPS Position Accuracy Measures. APN-029. Available online: https:\/\/www.gnss.ca\/novatel_app_notes\/APN-029_GPS_Position_Accuracy_Measures_Application_Note."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., Arribas, J., and Closas, P. (2013, January 16\u201320). Turning a Television Into a GNSS Receiver. Proceedings of the 26th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2013), Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02521844","article-title":"Contributions to the theory of atmospheric refraction","volume":"105","author":"Saastamoinen","year":"1972","journal-title":"Bull. G\u00e9od. (1946\u20131975)"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/23\/9483\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:32:51Z","timestamp":1760131971000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/23\/9483"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s23239483"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23239483","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]]}}}