{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T04:49:52Z","timestamp":1768279792675,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,26]],"date-time":"2023-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1703548800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Gobierno de Cantabria","award":["2020\/INN\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/INN\/21"]}]},{"name":"Gobierno de Cantabria","award":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"]}]},{"name":"Gobierno de Cantabria","award":["PDC2021-121172-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDC2021-121172-C21"]}]},{"name":"Gobierno de Cantabria","award":["TED2021-130378B-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130378B-C21"]}]},{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/ 10.13039\/501100011033","award":["2020\/INN\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/INN\/21"]}]},{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/ 10.13039\/501100011033","award":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"]}]},{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/ 10.13039\/501100011033","award":["PDC2021-121172-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDC2021-121172-C21"]}]},{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/ 10.13039\/501100011033","award":["TED2021-130378B-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130378B-C21"]}]},{"name":"FEDER","award":["2020\/INN\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/INN\/21"]}]},{"name":"FEDER","award":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"]}]},{"name":"FEDER","award":["PDC2021-121172-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDC2021-121172-C21"]}]},{"name":"FEDER","award":["TED2021-130378B-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130378B-C21"]}]},{"name":"EU NextGenerationEU\/PRT","award":["2020\/INN\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/INN\/21"]}]},{"name":"EU NextGenerationEU\/PRT","award":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"]}]},{"name":"EU NextGenerationEU\/PRT","award":["PDC2021-121172-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDC2021-121172-C21"]}]},{"name":"EU NextGenerationEU\/PRT","award":["TED2021-130378B-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130378B-C21"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades of Spain under Juan de la Cierva-Incorporaci\u00f3n grant","award":["2020\/INN\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/INN\/21"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades of Spain under Juan de la Cierva-Incorporaci\u00f3n grant","award":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019-107270RB-C21"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades of Spain under Juan de la Cierva-Incorporaci\u00f3n grant","award":["PDC2021-121172-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDC2021-121172-C21"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades of Spain under Juan de la Cierva-Incorporaci\u00f3n grant","award":["TED2021-130378B-C21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130378B-C21"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work involves exploring non-invasive sensor technologies for data collection and preprocessing, specifically focusing on novel thermal calibration methods and assessing low-cost infrared radiation sensors for facial temperature analysis. Additionally, it investigates innovative approaches to analyzing acoustic signals for quantifying coughing episodes. The research integrates diverse data capture technologies to analyze them collectively, considering their temporal evolution and physical attributes, aiming to extract statistically significant relationships among various variables for valuable insights. The study delineates two distinct aspects: cough detection employing a microphone and a neural network, and thermal sensors employing a calibration curve to refine their output values, reducing errors within a specified temperature range. Regarding control units, the initial implementation with an ESP32 transitioned to a Raspberry Pi model 3B+ due to neural network integration issues. A comprehensive testing is conducted for both fever and cough detection, ensuring robustness and accuracy in each scenario. The subsequent work involves practical experimentation and interoperability tests, validating the proof of concept for each system component. Furthermore, this work assesses the technical specifications of the prototype developed in the preceding tasks. Real-time testing is performed for each symptom to evaluate the system\u2019s effectiveness. This research contributes to the advancement of non-invasive sensor technologies, with implications for healthcare applications such as remote health monitoring and early disease detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24010129","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,27]],"date-time":"2023-12-27T02:58:12Z","timestamp":1703645892000},"page":"129","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Non-Contact Thermal and Acoustic Sensors with Embedded Artificial Intelligence for Point-of-Care Diagnostics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2068-2956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Cobo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CIBER de Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Reyes-Gonzalez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photonics Engineering Group, University of Cantabria, 39005 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2654-583X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Francisco","family":"Algorri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIBER de Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Photonics Engineering Group, University of Cantabria, 39005 Santander, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria Valdecilla (IDIVAL), 39011 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"D\u00edez-del-Valle Garz\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ambar Telecomunicaciones S.L., 39011 Santander, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Innovaci\u00f3n de Servicios Gestionados Avanzados (CiSGA) S.L., 39011 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Garc\u00eda-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ambar Telecomunicaciones S.L., 39011 Santander, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Innovaci\u00f3n de Servicios Gestionados Avanzados (CiSGA) S.L., 39011 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Miguel","family":"L\u00f3pez-Higuera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIBER de Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Photonics Engineering Group, University of Cantabria, 39005 Santander, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria Valdecilla (IDIVAL), 39011 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1498-9238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adolfo","family":"Cobo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIBER de Bioingenier\u00eda, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Photonics Engineering Group, University of Cantabria, 39005 Santander, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria Valdecilla (IDIVAL), 39011 Santander, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., and Bergmann, J.H.M. (2023). Non-Contact Infrared Thermometers and Thermal Scanners for Human Body Temperature Monitoring: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23177439"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-6712.2002.00069.x","article-title":"Normal oral, rectal, tympanic and axillary body temperature in adult men and women: A systematic literature review","volume":"16","author":"Forsberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Scand. J. Caring Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1093\/qjmed\/95.4.251","article-title":"A brief history of the clinical thermometer","volume":"95","author":"Pearce","year":"2002","journal-title":"QJM: Int. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00029","article-title":"Skin Temperature Measurement Using Contact Thermometry: A Systematic Review of Setup Variables and Their Effects on Measured Values","volume":"9","author":"MacRae","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e681","DOI":"10.3399\/bjgp14X682045","article-title":"Non-contact infrared thermometers for measuring temperature in children: Primary care diagnostic technology update","volume":"64","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Gen. Pract."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2192","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2192","article-title":"The effectiveness of non-contact thermal screening as a means of identifying cases of Covid-19: A rapid review of the evidence","volume":"31","author":"Cardwell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100112","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2023.1100112","article-title":"Coronavirus diagnosis using cough sounds: Artificial intelligence approaches","volume":"6","author":"Mirzaei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15345","DOI":"10.1007\/s00500-021-06137-x","article-title":"Deep neural networks for COVID-19 detection and diagnosis using images and acoustic-based techniques: A recent review","volume":"25","author":"Hariri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-023-02266-0","article-title":"Coswara: A respiratory sounds and symptoms dataset for remote screening of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"10","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.07.266","article-title":"Outbreak prediction of COVID-19 using Recurrent neural network with Gated Recurrent Units","volume":"80","author":"Natarajan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imu.2020.100378","article-title":"AI4COVID-19: AI enabled preliminary diagnosis for COVID-19 from cough samples via an app","volume":"20","author":"Imran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inform. Med. Unlocked"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564906","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2021.564906","article-title":"COVID-19 and Computer Audition: An Overview on What Speech & Sound Analysis Could Contribute in the SARS-CoV-2 Corona Crisis","volume":"3","author":"Schuller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Digit. Health"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2023, December 01). AMG8833. Available online: https:\/\/www.sparkfun.com\/products\/14607."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2023, December 01). HTPA80x64d. Available online: https:\/\/www.heimannsensor.com\/80x64."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2023, December 01). Melexis MLX90640. Available online: https:\/\/www.mouser.es\/new\/melexis\/melexis-mlx90640-fir-sensor\/."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2023, December 01). MCP9800. Available online: https:\/\/ww1.microchip.com\/downloads\/en\/DeviceDoc\/21909d.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2023, December 01). daq970a. Available online: https:\/\/www.keysight.com\/es\/en\/products\/modular\/data-acquisition-daq\/digital-acquisition-benchtop-system\/daq970a-data-acquisition-system.html."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2023, December 01). PT100. Available online: https:\/\/www.mouser.es\/datasheet\/2\/418\/6\/ENG_DS_PTF_FAMILY_A3-775357.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100545","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202100545","article-title":"Wearable Sensors for Remote Health Monitoring: Potential Applications for Early Diagnosis of COVID-19","volume":"7","author":"Mirjalali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.3949\/ccjm.86.s1.03","article-title":"Sleep apnea and the heart","volume":"86","author":"Mehra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clevel. Clin. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2022.3226290","article-title":"A Review of Emerging Electromagnetic-Acoustic Sensing Techniques for Healthcare Monitoring","volume":"16","author":"Fang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539678","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2021.539678","article-title":"Flexible Temperature Sensors","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Canali, S., Schiaffonati, V., and Aliverti, A. (2022). Challenges and Recommendations for Wearable Devices in Digital Health: Data Quality, Interoperability, Health Equity, Fairness. PLoS Digit. Health, 1.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pdig.0000104"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piwek, L., Ellis, D.A., Andrews, S., and Joinson, A. (2016). The Rise of Consumer Health Wearables: Promises and Barriers. PLoS Med., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001953"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-022-02033-z","article-title":"Hurdles to developing and scaling remote patients\u2019 health management tools and systems: A scoping review","volume":"11","author":"Ruyobeza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallegni, N., Molinari, G., Ricci, C., Lazzeri, A., La Rosa, D., Crivello, A., and Milazzo, M. (2022). Sensing Devices for Detecting and Processing Acoustic Signals in Healthcare. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12100835"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, T., Ullah, S., Fern\u00e1ndez-Garc\u00eda, R., and Gil, I. (2023). Wearable Sensors for Respiration Monitoring: A Review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202308.0876.v1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37","DOI":"10.1183\/20734735.008817","article-title":"The use of tracheal sounds for the diagnosis of sleep apnea","volume":"13","author":"Penzel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breathe"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, T., Kim, J.-W., and Lee, K. (2018). Detection of sleep disordered breathing severity using acoustic biomarker and machine learning techniques. Biomed. Eng. Online, 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12938-018-0448-x"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Liu, F., Lin, X., Liu, J., Chen, Z., Shi, K., Li, J., and Dong, J. (2023). Combined Effects of the Thermal-Acoustic Environment on Subjective Evaluations in Urban Park Based on Sensory-Walking. Forests, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/f14061161"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, S., Gu, Z., Zhou, L., Hao, M., An, H., Song, K., Wu, X., Zhang, K., Zhao, Z., and Dong, Y. (2021). Recent Progress in Intelligent Wearable Sensors for Health Monitoring and Wound Healing Based on Biofluids. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.765987"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Liu, B., Li, H., Li, M., Song, Y., Wang, R., Wang, T., and Zhang, H. (2022). Flexible Wearable Sensors in Medical Monitoring. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12121069"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1007\/s11265-022-01748-5","article-title":"Automatic Non-Invasive Cough Detection based on Accelerometer and Audio Signals","volume":"94","author":"Pahar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Signal Process. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eni, M., Mordoh, V., and Zigel, Y. (2022). Cough detection using a non-contact microphone: A nocturnal cough study. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262240"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30739","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3261557","article-title":"Accelerometer-Based Bed Occupancy Detection for Automatic, Non-Invasive Long-Term Cough Monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Pahar","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"6","article-title":"The Research of Temperature Compensation for Thermopile Sensor Based on Improved PSO-BP Algorithm","volume":"2015","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, G., Matsui, T., Kim, S., and Takei, O. (2014, January 7\u201310). KAZEKAMO: An infection screening system remote monitoring of multiple vital-signs for prevention of pandemic diseases. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 3rd Global Conference on Consumer Electronics (GCCE), Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/GCCE.2014.7031086"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.03.1398","article-title":"Fever screening of seasonal influenza patients using a cost-effective thermopile array with small pixels for close-range thermometry","volume":"25","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/129\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:42:15Z","timestamp":1760132535000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/1\/129"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,26]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24010129"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24010129","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,26]]}}}