{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T22:36:14Z","timestamp":1789079774786,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]],"date-time":"2024-01-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005632","name":"National Centre for Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BIOSTRATEG3\/347105\/9\/NCBR\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BIOSTRATEG3\/347105\/9\/NCBR\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005632","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005632","name":"National Centre for Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["30.610.009.110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30.610.009.110"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005632","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012706","name":"University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BIOSTRATEG3\/347105\/9\/NCBR\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BIOSTRATEG3\/347105\/9\/NCBR\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012706","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012706","name":"University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["30.610.009.110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30.610.009.110"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012706","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum are considered some of the most dangerous pathogens of plant diseases. They are also considerably dangerous to humans as they contaminate stored grain, causing a reduction in yield and deterioration in grain quality by producing mycotoxins. Detecting Fusarium fungi is possible using various diagnostic methods. In the manuscript, qPCR tests were used to determine the level of wheat grain spoilage by estimating the amount of DNA present. High-performance liquid chromatography was performed to determine the concentration of DON and ZEA mycotoxins produced by the fungi. GC-MS analysis was used to identify volatile organic components produced by two studied species of Fusarium. A custom-made, low-cost, electronic nose was used for measurements of three categories of samples, and Random Forests machine learning models were trained for classification between healthy and infected samples. A detection performance with recall in the range of 88\u201394%, precision in the range of 90\u201396%, and accuracy in the range of 85\u201393% was achieved for various models. Two methods of data collection during electronic nose measurements were tested and compared: sensor response to immersion in the odor and response to sensor temperature modulation. An improvement in the detection performance was achieved when the temperature modulation profile with short rectangular steps of heater voltage change was applied.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24020326","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]],"date-time":"2024-01-05T05:12:17Z","timestamp":1704431537000},"page":"326","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Analysis of Wheat Grain Infection by Fusarium Mycotoxin-Producing Fungi Using an Electronic Nose, GC-MS, and qPCR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2906-246X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Borowik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warszawa, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2553-109X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentyna","family":"Dyshko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration Named after G. M. Vysotsky, 61024 Kharkiv, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6031-996X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mi\u0142osz","family":"Tkaczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forest Protection Department, Forest Research Institute, ul. Braci Le\u015bnej 3, 05-090 S\u0119kocin Stary, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9545-4771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Okorski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Entomology, Phytopathology and Molecular Diagnostics, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Pl. \u0141\u00f3dzki 5, 10-727 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5425-0804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Polak-\u015aliwi\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Commodity Science and Food Analysis, Faculty of Food Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Heweliusza 6, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9666-8483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Tarakowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warszawa, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9430-7892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Stocki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Bia\u0142ystok University of Technology, ul. Wiejska 45E, 15-351 Bia\u0142ystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Stocka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Bia\u0142ystok University of Technology, ul. Wiejska 45E, 15-351 Bia\u0142ystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4688-2582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz","family":"Oszako","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forest Protection Department, Forest Research Institute, ul. Braci Le\u015bnej 3, 05-090 S\u0119kocin Stary, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1364-3703.2011.00783.x","article-title":"The Top 10 fungal pathogens in molecular plant pathology","volume":"13","author":"Dean","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesterhazy, A. (2020). 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