{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T17:01:07Z","timestamp":1793466067223,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,9]],"date-time":"2024-04-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"NSERC Discovery","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RGPIN-2018-04850"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2018-04850"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"NSERC Discovery","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NFRFE2018-01698"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NFRFE2018-01698"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"NSERC Discovery","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NFRFE2022-620"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NFRFE2022-620"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"New Frontiers in Research Fund-Exploration","award":["RGPIN-2018-04850"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2018-04850"]}]},{"name":"New Frontiers in Research Fund-Exploration","award":["NFRFE2018-01698"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NFRFE2018-01698"]}]},{"name":"New Frontiers in Research Fund-Exploration","award":["NFRFE2022-620"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NFRFE2022-620"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work presents a real-time gait phase estimator using thigh- and shank-mounted inertial measurement units (IMUs). A multi-rate convolutional neural network (CNN) was trained to estimate gait phase for a dataset of 16 participants walking on an instrumented treadmill with speeds varying between 0.1 to 1.9 m\/s, and conditions such as asymmetric walking, stop\u2013start, and sudden speed changes. One-subject-out cross-validation was used to assess the robustness of the estimator to the gait patterns of new individuals. The proposed model had a spatial root mean square error of 5.00\u00b11.65%, and a temporal mean absolute error of 2.78\u00b10.97% evaluated at the heel strike. A second cross-validation was performed to show that leaving out any of the walking conditions from the training dataset did not result in significant performance degradation. A 2-sample Kolmogorov\u2013Smirnov test showed that there was no significant increase in spatial or temporal error when testing on the abnormal walking conditions left out of the training set. The results of the two cross-validations demonstrate that the proposed model generalizes well across new participants, various walking speeds, and gait patterns, showcasing its potential for use in investigating patient populations with pathological gaits and facilitating robot-assisted walking.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24082390","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,9]],"date-time":"2024-04-09T08:55:12Z","timestamp":1712652912000},"page":"2390","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["IMU-Based Real-Time Estimation of Gait Phase Using Multi-Resolution Neural Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Lyndon","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2956-2272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Shushtari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7609-6553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arash","family":"Arami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"},{"name":"KITE Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.5312\/wjo.v9.i9.112","article-title":"Robotic exoskeletons: The current pros and cons","volume":"9","author":"Gorgey","year":"2018","journal-title":"World J. 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