{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T17:41:47Z","timestamp":1789666907276,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714694400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Concussions, a prevalent public health concern in the United States, often result from mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI), notably in sports such as American football. There is limited exploration of smart-textile-based sensors for measuring the head impacts associated with concussions in sports and recreational activities. In this paper, we describe the development and construction of a smart textile impact sensor (STIS) and validate STIS functionality under high magnitude impacts. This STIS can be inserted into helmet cushioning to determine head impact force. The designed 2 \u00d7 2 STIS matrix is composed of a number of material layered structures, with a sensing surface made of semiconducting polymer composite (SPC). The SPC dimension was modified in the design iteration to increase sensor range, responsiveness, and linearity. This was to be applicable in high impact situations. A microcontroller board with a biasing circuit was used to interface the STIS and read the sensor\u2019s response. A pendulum test setup was constructed to evaluate various STISs with impact forces. A camera and Tracker software were used to monitor the pendulum swing. The impact forces were calculated by measuring the pendulum bob\u2019s velocity and acceleration. The performance of the various STISs was measured in terms of voltage due to impact force, with forces varying from 180 to 722 N. Through data analysis, the threshold impact forces in the linear range were determined. Through an analysis of linear regression, the sensors\u2019 sensitivity was assessed. Also, a simplified model was developed to measure the force distribution in the 2 \u00d7 2 STIS areas from the measured voltages. The results showed that improving the SPC thickness could obtain improved sensor behavior. However, for impacts that exceeded the threshold, the suggested sensor did not respond by reflecting the actual impact forces, but it gave helpful information about the impact distribution on the sensor regardless of the accurate expected linear response. Results showed that the proposed STIS performs satisfactorily within a range and has the potential to be used in the development of an e-helmet with a large STIS matrix that could cover the whole head within the e-helmet. This work also encourages future research, especially on the structure of the sensor that could withstand impacts which in turn could improve the overall range and performance and would accurately measure the impact in concussion-causing impact ranges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092919","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T03:43:46Z","timestamp":1714707826000},"page":"2919","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Smart Textile Impact Sensor for e-Helmet to Measure Head Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6656-4333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manob Jyoti","family":"Saikia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arar Salim","family":"Alkhader","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Computer, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths\u2014United States, 2007 and 2013","volume":"66","author":"Taylor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Morb. 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