{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T11:03:19Z","timestamp":1782817399415,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]],"date-time":"2024-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716508800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001602","name":"Science Foundation Ireland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["17\/RC-PhD\/3482"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17\/RC-PhD\/3482"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001602","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Irish Centre for Fetal and Neonatal Translational Research (INFANT)","award":["17\/RC-PhD\/3482"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17\/RC-PhD\/3482"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Birth asphyxia is a potential cause of death that is also associated with acute and chronic morbidities. The traditional and immediate approach for monitoring birth asphyxia (i.e., arterial blood gas analysis) is highly invasive and intermittent. Additionally, alternative noninvasive approaches such as pulse oximeters can be problematic, due to the possibility of false and erroneous measurements. Therefore, further research is needed to explore alternative noninvasive and accurate monitoring methods for asphyxiated neonates. This study aims to investigate the prominent ECG features based on pH estimation that could potentially be used to explore the noninvasive, accurate, and continuous monitoring of asphyxiated neonates. The dataset used contained 274 segments of ECG and pH values recorded simultaneously. After preprocessing the data, principal component analysis and the Pan\u2013Tompkins algorithm were used for each segment to determine the most significant ECG cycle and to compute the ECG features. Descriptive statistics were performed to describe the main properties of the processed dataset. A Kruskal\u2013Wallis nonparametric test was then used to analyze differences between the asphyxiated and non-asphyxiated groups. Finally, a Dunn\u2013\u0160id\u00e1k post hoc test was used for individual comparison among the mean ranks of all groups. The findings of this study showed that ECG features (T\/QRS, T Amplitude, Tslope, Tslope\/T, Tslope\/|T|, HR, QT, and QTc) based on pH estimation differed significantly (p &lt; 0.05) in asphyxiated neonates. All these key ECG features were also found to be significantly different between the two groups.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113357","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]],"date-time":"2024-05-24T03:46:56Z","timestamp":1716522416000},"page":"3357","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Feasibility Analysis of ECG-Based pH Estimation for Asphyxia Detection in Neonates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6572-7698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadia Muhammad","family":"Hussain","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Translational Medical Device Lab, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4340-1387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bilal","family":"Amin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Translational Medical Device Lab, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4593-5331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barry James","family":"McDermott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0017-6594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eoghan","family":"Dunne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Translational Medical Device Lab, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"O\u2019Halloran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Translational Medical Device Lab, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0988-5776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adnan","family":"Elahi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"},{"name":"Translational Medical Device Lab, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"UNICEF (2024, March 26). \u201cNewborn Mortality\u201d, UNICEF Data: Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women. Available online: https:\/\/data.unicef.org\/topic\/child-survival\/neonatal-mortality\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2012). WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, WHO Press. Available online: www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241503693."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)71048-5","article-title":"4 million neonatal deaths: When? Where? Why?","volume":"365","author":"Lawn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdo, R.A., Halil, H.M., Kebede, B.A., Anshebo, A.A., and Gejo, N.G. (2019). Prevalence and contributing factors of birth asphyxia among the neonates delivered at Nigist Eleni Mohammed memorial teaching hospital, Southern Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-019-2696-6"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e03793","article-title":"Prevalence of perinatal asphyxia in East and Central Africa: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Workineh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2019.00489","article-title":"A Global View of Neonatal Asphyxia and Resuscitation","volume":"7","author":"Moshiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2017.00016","article-title":"Understanding the Full Spectrum of Organ Injury Following Intrapartum Asphyxia","volume":"5","author":"LaRosa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, N.M., Amin, B., O\u2019halloran, M., and Elahi, A. (2023). Development and Characterization of Interstitial-Fluid-Mimicking Solutions for Pre-Clinical Assessment of Hypoxia. Diagnostics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13193125"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2016.12.005","article-title":"The potentials and limitations of neuro-biomarkers as predictors of outcome in neonates with birth asphyxia","volume":"105","author":"Satriano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wosenu, L., Worku, A.G., Teshome, D.F., and Gelagay, A.A. (2018). Determinants of birth asphyxia among live birth newborns in University of Gondar referral hospital, northwest Ethiopia: A case-control study. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0203763"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.3329\/bjms.v18i2.40692","article-title":"Neonatal arterial blood gases & immediate outcome following perinatal asphyxia","volume":"18","author":"Mannan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bangladesh J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1053\/j.nainr.2016.08.002","article-title":"Neonatal Blood Gas Interpretation","volume":"16","author":"Cavaliere","year":"2016","journal-title":"Newborn Infant Nurs. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ANC.0000547461.94078.09","article-title":"The Delicate Balance: Managing Oxygen Treatment in Neonates","volume":"18","author":"Koehn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Neonatal Care"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcped.2019.10.013","article-title":"Neonatal cord blood eucapnic pH: A potential biomarker predicting the need for transfer to the NICU","volume":"27","author":"Racinet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. P\u00e9diatrie"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amj.2021.11.008","article-title":"Arterial Blood Gases and Arterial Lines in the Prehospital Setting: A Systematic Literature Review and Survey of Current United Kingdom Helicopter Emergency Medical Services","volume":"41","author":"Morton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Air Med. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2015.00094","article-title":"Monitoring Oxygenation and Gas Exchange in Neonatal Intensive Care Units: Current Practice in the Netherlands","volume":"3","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.siny.2010.03.004","article-title":"Monitoring oxygen saturation and heart rate in the early neonatal period","volume":"15","author":"Dawson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, N.M., Amin, B., O\u2019Halloran, M., and Elahi, A. (2023, January 3\u20136). Dielectric Characterization of Interstitial Fluid Phantoms for Hypoxia Monitoring at Microwave Frequencies. Proceedings of the 2023 Photonics & Electromagnetics Research Symposium (PIERS), Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS59004.2023.10221244"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plana, M.N., Zamora, J., Suresh, G., Fernandez-Pineda, L., Thangaratinam, S., and Ewer, A.K. (2018). Pulse oximetry screening for critical congenital heart defects. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 3.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD011912.pub2"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2019.05.010","article-title":"Noninvasive Monitoring and Assessment of Oxygenation in Infants","volume":"46","author":"Poets","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sola, A., and Golombek, S.G. (2018). Early Detection with Pulse Oximetry of Hypoxemic Neonatal Conditions. Development of the IX Clinical Consensus Statement of the Ibero-American Society of Neonatology (SIBEN). Int. J. Neonatal Screen., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijns4010010"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, N.M., O\u2019Halloran, M., McDermott, B., and Elahi, M.A. (2024). Fetal Monitoring Technologies for the Detection of Intrapartum Hypoxia\u2014Challenges and Opportunities. Biomed. Phys. Eng. Express, 10.","DOI":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/ad17a6"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.4037\/ajcc2007.16.2.168","article-title":"Validation of oxygen saturation monitoring in neonates","volume":"16","author":"Shiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012073","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1574\/1\/012073","article-title":"The Effects of Sodium Phosphocreatine on ECG Abnormalities and Cardiac Markers of Neonatal Asphyxia Based on Big Data Statistics","volume":"1574","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"51","article-title":"Electrocardiographic and echocardiographic findings in asphyxiated neonates","volume":"22","author":"Yellanthoor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iran. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koether, K., Ulian, C.M., Louren\u00e7o, M.L., Gon\u00e7alves, R.S., Sudano, M.J., Cruz, R.K., da Silva, B.N., Alfonso, A., and Chiacchio, S.B. (2016). The normal electrocardiograms in the conscious newborn lambs in neonatal period and its progression. BMC Physiol., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12899-016-0020-5"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.3345\/kjp.2017.60.11.344","article-title":"Neonatal arrhythmias: Diagnosis, treatment, and clinical outcome","volume":"60","author":"Ban","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"278","article-title":"Defining the normal QT interval in newborns: The natural history and reference values for the first 4 weeks of life","volume":"23","author":"Hvidemose","year":"2021","journal-title":"EP Eur."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-013-1019-6","article-title":"Effect of Birth Asphyxia on P Wave Dispersion","volume":"81","author":"Amoozgar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hermans, B.J.M., Vink, A.S., Bennis, F.C., Filippini, L.H., Meijborg, V.M.F., Wilde, A.A.M., Pison, L., Postema, P.G., and Delhaas, T. (2017). The development and validation of an easy to use automatic QT-interval algorithm. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0184352"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"7448","article-title":"Correlation of QT dispersion with serum potassium or blood sodium levels post-neonatal asphyxia","volume":"22","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2004.02.008","article-title":"Fetal ECG waveform analysis","volume":"18","author":"Luzietti","year":"2004","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.2004.00178.x","article-title":"The effects of intrapartum hypoxia on the fetal OT interval","volume":"111","author":"Oudijk","year":"2004","journal-title":"BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1287","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00373.2007","article-title":"Preexisting hypoxia is associated with a delayed but more sustained rise in T\/QRS ratio during prolonged umbilical cord occlusion in near-term fetal sheep","volume":"293","author":"Wibbens","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2016.21","article-title":"Comparison of ECG-based physiological markers for hypoxia in a preterm ovine model","volume":"79","author":"Zwanenburg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.3233\/THC-181375","article-title":"A novel modular fetal ECG STAN and HRV analysis: Towards robust hypoxia detection","volume":"27","author":"Martinek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Technol. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1515\/JPM.2004.121","article-title":"Fetal scalp pH and ST analysis of the fetal ECG as an adjunct to CTG. A multi-center, observational study","volume":"32","author":"Luttkus","year":"2004","journal-title":"JPME"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2015.28","article-title":"Heart rate variability in hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: Correlation with EEG grade and 2-y neurodevelopmental outcome","volume":"77","author":"Goulding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gholinezhadasnefestani, S., Temko, A., Stevenson, N., Boylan, G., Lightbody, G., and Marnane, W. (2015, January 25\u201329). Assessment of quality of ECG for accurate estimation of Heart Rate Variability in newborns. Proceedings of the 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2015.7319725"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2006.099846","article-title":"Use of umbilical cord blood gas analysis in the assessment of the newborn","volume":"92","author":"Armstrong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Thorborg, P.A.J. (2008). Mechanical Ventilation: Clinical Applications and Pathophysiology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paed.2007.12.013","article-title":"Acid\u2013base physiology and blood gas interpretation in the neonate","volume":"18","author":"Tan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paed.2019.01.007","article-title":"Ammonia, lactate and blood gases\u2014A user\u2019s guide","volume":"29","author":"Davison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imu.2020.100441","article-title":"Congestive heart failure waveform classification based on short time-step analysis with recurrent network","volume":"21","author":"Darmawahyuni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inform. Med. Unlocked"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-spr.2015.0552","article-title":"Introducing new algorithms for realising an FIR filter with less hardware in order to eliminate power line interference from the ECG signal","volume":"10","author":"Meidani","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lastre-Dom\u00ednguez, C., Shmaliy, Y.S., Ibarra-Manzano, O., Munoz-Minjares, J., and Morales-Mendoza, L.J. (2019). ECG Signal Denoising and Features Extraction Using Unbiased FIR Smoothing. BioMed Res. Int., 2019.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2608547"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawala-Sterniuk, A., Podpora, M., Pelc, M., Blaszczyszyn, M., Gorzelanczyk, E.J., Martinek, R., and Ozana, S. (2020). Comparison of Smoothing Filters in Analysis of EEG Data for the Medical Diagnostics Purposes. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030807"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandes, B.A., Colletta, G.D., Ferreira, L.H.C., and Dutra, O.O. (2017, January 7\u201310). Utilization of Savitzky-Golay filter for power line interference cancellation in an embedded electrocardiographic monitoring platform. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Rochester, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2017.7985880"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1986.325695","article-title":"Quantitative investigation of QRS detection rules using the MIT\/BIH arrhythmia database","volume":"33","author":"Hamilton","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1985.325532","article-title":"A Real-Time QRS Detection Algorithm","volume":"32","author":"Pan","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jart.2015.06.008","article-title":"Feature Extraction of Electrocardiogram Signals by Applying Adaptive Threshold and Principal Component Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Mexicano","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.3109\/03091902.2012.753126","article-title":"ECG feature extraction using principal component analysis for studying the effect of diabetes","volume":"37","author":"Kalpana","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074580","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/74580","article-title":"Principal Component Analysis in ECG Signal Processing","volume":"2007","author":"Castells","year":"2007","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1159\/000084067","article-title":"Usefulness of Cardiac Troponin T and Echocardiography in the Diagnosis of Hypoxic Myocardial Injury of Full-Term Neonates","volume":"88","author":"Szymankiewicz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Neonate"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhayabarani, R., Balachandar, P., Arunkumar, R., and Elakkiyaselvan, M. (2018, January 20\u201321). Design of FIR Filter for Reduction of Power Line Interference from ECG Signal. Proceedings of the 2018 Second International Conference on Inventive Communication and Computational Technologies (ICICCT), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICCT.2018.8472991"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012022","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1532\/1\/012022","article-title":"Analysis of Pan-Tompkins Algorithm Performance with Noisy ECG Signals","volume":"1532","author":"Fariha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Sommo, L., and Laguna, P. (2005). Bioelectrical Signal Processing in Cardiac and Neurological Applications, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2014.08.048","article-title":"Performance Study of Different Denoising Methods for ECG Signals","volume":"37","author":"Riley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1","article-title":"Signal Processing Techniques for Removing Noise from ECG Signals","volume":"3","author":"Kher","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krupa, A.J.D., Dhanalakshmi, S., and Kumar, R. (2022). Joint time-frequency analysis and non-linear estimation for fetal ECG extraction. Biomed. Signal Process. Control., 75.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2022.103569"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahul, J., Sora, M., and Sharma, L.D. (2021). A novel and lightweight P, QRS, and T peaks detector using adaptive thresholding and template waveform. Comput. Biol. Med., 132.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2021.104307"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2017.10.018","article-title":"Identification of preterm birth based on RQA analysis of electrohysterograms","volume":"153","author":"Borowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaitanya, M.K., and Sharma, L.D. (2022). Electrocardiogram signal filtering using circulant singular spectrum analysis and cascaded Savitzky-Golay filter. Biomed. Signal Process. Control., 75.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2022.103583"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-474X.1997.tb00325.x","article-title":"An analysis of the time-relations of electrocardiograms","volume":"2","author":"Bazett","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Glass, G.F., Sudhir, A., Anil, A., and Pandit, K. (2021). Electrocardiogram in Clinical Medicine, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1053\/j.nainr.2006.03.005","article-title":"Understanding Blood Gas Interpretation","volume":"6","author":"Brown","year":"2006","journal-title":"Newborn Infant Nurs. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.4103\/aca.ACA_36_17","article-title":"Descriptive Statistics and Normality Tests for Statistical Data Abstract","volume":"20","author":"Varsha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Card. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1177\/1536867X1501500117","article-title":"Nonparametric Pairwise Multiple Comparisons in Independent Groups using Dunn\u2019s Test","volume":"15","author":"Dinno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stata J. Promot. Commun. Stat. Stata"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1080\/00031305.2017.1305291","article-title":"The Wilcoxon\u2013Mann\u2013Whitney Procedure Fails as a Test of Medians","volume":"72","author":"Divine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Stat."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.16103","article-title":"Significance of the angiotensin I\/angiotensin II\/angiotensin-(1-7) axis in the pathogenesis of systemic sclerosis","volume":"34","author":"Miziolek","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3109\/03091909609008389","article-title":"New applications of electrical impedance of human blood","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1080\/jmf.12.4.260.266","article-title":"ST analysis of the fetal electrocardiogram during labor: Nordic observational multicenter study","volume":"12","author":"Eikeland","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Matern. Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S203","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.933676","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability in Newborns","volume":"66","author":"Javorka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sbrollini, A., Mancinelli, M., Marcantoni, I., Morettini, M., Carnielli, V.P., and Burattini, L. (2021). Adaptive bradycardia assessment in preterm infants. Biomed. Signal Process. Control., 68.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2021.102816"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-020-03903-1","article-title":"Correction to: Heart rate variability as possible marker of brain damage in neonates with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: A systematic review","volume":"180","author":"Bersani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1177\/201010581102000313","article-title":"Arterial Blood Gases","volume":"20","author":"Yap","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Singap. Healthc."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3357\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:47:41Z","timestamp":1760107661000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3357"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24113357"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24113357","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,24]]}}}