{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:07:34Z","timestamp":1787029654069,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]],"date-time":"2024-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716940800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"KAKENHI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP23H03242"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP23H03242"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Upper-limb paralysis requires extensive rehabilitation to recover functionality for everyday living, and such assistance can be supported with robot technology. Against such a background, we have proposed an electromyography (EMG)-driven hybrid rehabilitation system based on motion estimation using a probabilistic neural network. The system controls a robot and functional electrical stimulation (FES) from movement estimation using EMG signals based on the user\u2019s intention, enabling intuitive learning of joint motion and muscle contraction capacity even for multiple motions. In this study, hybrid and visual-feedback training were conducted with pointing movements involving the non-dominant wrist, and the motor learning effect was examined via quantitative evaluation of accuracy, stability, and smoothness. The results show that hybrid instruction was as effective as visual feedback training in all aspects. Accordingly, passive hybrid instruction using the proposed system can be considered effective in promoting motor learning and rehabilitation for paralysis with inability to perform voluntary movements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]],"date-time":"2024-05-29T03:38:30Z","timestamp":1716953910000},"page":"3496","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Investigation of Motor Learning Effects Using a Hybrid Rehabilitation System Based on Motion Estimation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5652-3585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kensuke","family":"Takenaka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6206-8663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keisuke","family":"Shima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koji","family":"Shimatani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health and Welfare, Prefectural University of Hiroshima, Mihara 723-0053, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60325-5","article-title":"Stroke Rehabilitation","volume":"377","author":"Langhorne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"CD010820","article-title":"Interventions for Improving Upper Limb Function after Stroke","volume":"11","author":"Pollock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00442","article-title":"Rehabilitation of Motor Function after Stroke: A Multiple Systematic Review Focused on Techniques to Stimulate Upper Extremity Recovery","volume":"10","author":"Hatem","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968316666957","article-title":"Effects of Robot-Assisted Therapy for the Upper Limb After Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Veerbeek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurorehabilit. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qassim, H.M., and Wan Hasan, W.Z. (2020). A Review on Upper Limb Rehabilitation Robots. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10196976"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-9-36","article-title":"Positive Effects of Robotic Exoskeleton Training of Upper Limb Reaching Movements after Stroke","volume":"9","author":"Frisoli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1053\/apmr.2001.33101","article-title":"Robot-Assisted Movement Training Compared with Conventional Therapy Techniques for the Rehabilitation of Upper-Limb Motor Function after Stroke","volume":"83","author":"Lum","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140103","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation for Neuromuscular Applications","volume":"7","author":"Peckham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968308326428","article-title":"Bilateral Upper Limb Training with Functional Electric Stimulation in Patients with Chronic Stroke","volume":"23","author":"Chan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurorehabilit. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shima, K., and Shimatani, K. (2016, January 28\u201330). A New Approach to Direct Rehabilitation Based on Functional Electrical Stimulation and EMG Classification. Proceedings of the 2016 International Symposium on Micro-NanoMechatronics and Human Science (MHS), Nagoya, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/MHS.2016.7824200"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2016.09.001","article-title":"Hybrid Robotic Systems for Upper Limb Rehabilitation after Stroke: A Review","volume":"38","author":"Brunetti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.2266","article-title":"Review of Upper Limb Hybrid Exoskeletons","volume":"50","author":"Stewart","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2020.0090","article-title":"An Exoneuromusculoskeleton for Self-Help Upper Limb Rehabilitation After Stroke","volume":"9","author":"Nam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2004.05.005","article-title":"Electromyogram-Triggered Neuromuscular Stimulation and Stroke Motor Recovery of Arm\/Hand Functions: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"223","author":"Bolton","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172958","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2023.1172958","article-title":"Effects of EMG-based Robot for Upper Extremity Rehabilitation on Post-Stroke Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Huo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takenaka, K., Shima, K., and Shimatani, K. (2023, January 24\u201328). Hybrid Rehabilitation System with Motion Estimation Based on EMG Signals. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR58425.2023.10304746"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1109\/TRA.2003.808873","article-title":"A Human-Assisting Manipulator Teleoperated by EMG Signals and Arm Motions","volume":"19","author":"Fukuda","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw6339","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaw6339","article-title":"A Myoelectric Prosthetic Hand with Muscle Synergy\u2013Based Motion Determination and Impedance Model\u2013Based Biomimetic Control","volume":"4","author":"Furui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154304","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3126348","article-title":"A Neural Network Based on the Johnson SU Translation System and Related Application to Electromyogram Classification","volume":"9","author":"Hayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1109\/TNN.2003.809403","article-title":"A Recurrent Log-Linearized Gaussian Mixture Network","volume":"14","author":"Tsuji","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024436732030","article-title":"Upper Limb Robot Mediated Stroke Therapy-GENTLE\/s Approach","volume":"15","author":"Loureiro","year":"2003","journal-title":"Auton. Robot."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8297","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-18-08297.2002","article-title":"Movement Smoothness Changes during Stroke Recovery","volume":"22","author":"Rohrer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024706431807","article-title":"EMG-Based Motion Discrimination Using a Novel Recurrent Neural Network","volume":"21","author":"Bu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Intell. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.95.3.355","article-title":"Knowledge of Results and Motor Learning\u2014A Review and Critical Reappraisal","volume":"95","author":"Salmoni","year":"1984","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3496\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:49:55Z","timestamp":1760107795000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/11\/3496"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s24113496"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24113496","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]]}}}