{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T06:32:33Z","timestamp":1790404353118,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]],"date-time":"2024-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729209600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CE200100022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CE200100022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Curtin School of Allied Health 2022 Teaching and Research Grant","award":["CE200100022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CE200100022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: ActiMotus, a thigh-accelerometer-based software used for the classification of postures and movements (PaMs), has shown high accuracy among adults and school-aged children; however, its accuracy among younger children and potential differences between sexes are unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of ActiMotus to measure PaMs among children between 3 and 14 years and to assess if this was influenced by the sex or age of children. Method: Forty-eight children attended a structured ~1-hour data collection session at a laboratory. Thigh acceleration was measured using a SENS accelerometer, which was classified into nine PaMs using the ActiMotus software. Human-coded video recordings of the session provided the ground truth. Results: Based on both F1 scores and balanced accuracy, the highest levels of accuracy were found for lying, sitting, and standing (63.2\u201388.2%). For walking and running, accuracy measures ranged from 48.0 to 85.8%. The lowest accuracy was observed for classifying stair climbing. We found a higher accuracy for stair climbing among girls compared to boys and for older compared to younger age groups for walking, running, and stair climbing. Conclusions: ActiMotus could accurately detect lying, sitting, and standing among children. The software could be improved for classifying walking, running, and stair climbing, particularly among younger children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24206705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,21]],"date-time":"2024-10-21T10:49:22Z","timestamp":1729507762000},"page":"6705","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Evaluation of the ActiMotus Software to Accurately Classify Postures and Movements in Children Aged 3\u201314"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2193-5019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charlotte","family":"Lund Rasmussen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8701-2212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danica","family":"Hendry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6908-7974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"},{"name":"Health and Wellbeing Centre for Research Innovation, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1302-4429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amber","family":"Beynon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5278-2532","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah Michelle","family":"Stearne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6815-7544","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juliana","family":"Zabatiero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2119-8066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Davey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0373-9305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jon","family":"Roslyng Larsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0038-2785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew Lloyd","family":"Rohl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"},{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"Curtin Institute for Data Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7786-4128","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leon","family":"Straker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6461-6280","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amity","family":"Campbell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, ACT 2609, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00258","article-title":"Sedentariness and health: Is sedentary behavior more than just physical inactivity?","volume":"6","author":"Panahi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1177\/1559827613498700","article-title":"Sedentary behavior and health outcomes in children and adolescents","volume":"8","author":"Mitchell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Lifestyle Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S197","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2015-0663","article-title":"Systematic review of the relationships between objectively measured physical activity and health indicators in school-aged children and youth","volume":"41","author":"Poitras","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-020-05485-y","article-title":"Association of objectively measured physical activity and bone health in children and adolescents: A systematic review and narrative synthesis","volume":"31","author":"Bland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-020-01042-2","article-title":"Advancing the global physical activity agenda: Recommendations for future research by the 2020 WHO physical activity and sedentary behavior guidelines development group","volume":"17","author":"DiPietro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0610-1","article-title":"Systematic review of childhood sedentary behavior questionnaires: What do we know and what is next?","volume":"47","author":"Hidding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2797","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-018-0987-0","article-title":"An updated systematic review of childhood physical activity questionnaires","volume":"48","author":"Hidding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200131060-00004","article-title":"Physical activity assessment in children and adolescents","volume":"31","author":"Sirard","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-021-01132-9","article-title":"A systematic review of the validity, reliability, and feasibility of measurement tools used to assess the physical activity and sedentary behaviour of pre-school aged children","volume":"18","author":"Phillips","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S490","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000185571.49104.82","article-title":"The technology of accelerometry-based activity monitors: Current and future","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2371","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2007.281","article-title":"Physical activity assessment with accelerometers: An evaluation against doubly labeled water","volume":"15","author":"Plasqui","year":"2007","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-017-0716-0","article-title":"Accelerometer data collection and processing criteria to assess physical activity and other outcomes: A systematic review and practical considerations","volume":"47","author":"Migueles","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12371","article-title":"Objectively measured sedentary behaviour and health and development in children and adolescents: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Cliff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1123\/jpah.2019-0088","article-title":"Application of raw accelerometer data and machine-learning techniques to characterize human movement behavior: A systematic scoping review","volume":"17","author":"Narayanan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Act. Health"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1080\/1091367X.2015.1045908","article-title":"Issues related to measuring and interpreting objectively measured sedentary behavior data","volume":"19","author":"Janssen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meas. Phys. Educ. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000874","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjsem-2020-000874","article-title":"Thigh-worn accelerometry for measuring movement and posture across the 24-hour cycle: A scoping review and expert statement","volume":"6","author":"Stevens","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2014.998724","article-title":"Validity of the Acti4 method for detection of physical activity types in free-living settings: Comparison with video analysis","volume":"58","author":"Stemland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-019-0835-0","article-title":"Comparison of physical behavior estimates from three different thigh-worn accelerometers brands: A proof-of-concept for the Prospective Physical Activity, Sitting, and Sleep consortium (ProPASS)","volume":"16","author":"Crowley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001267","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjsem-2021-001267","article-title":"Assessment of 24-hour physical behaviour in children and adolescents via wearables: A systematic review of free-living validation studies","volume":"8","author":"Giurgiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Br\u00f8nd, J.C., Grontved, A., Andersen, L.B., Arvidsson, D., and Olesen, L.G. (2020). Simple method for the objective activity type assessment with preschoolers, children and adolescents. Children, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/children7070072"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001717","article-title":"A dual-accelerometer system for classifying physical activity in children and adults","volume":"50","author":"Stewart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.2013-0106","article-title":"Validation of activPAL defined sedentary time and breaks in sedentary time in 4- to 6-year-olds","volume":"26","author":"Janssen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31823b1dc7","article-title":"Validity, practical utility, and reliability of the activPAL in preschool children","volume":"44","author":"Davies","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1123\/jpah.2024-0259","article-title":"Assessing the accuracy of activity classification using thigh-worn accelerometry: A validation study of ActiPASS in school-aged children","volume":"21","author":"Lendt","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Phys. Act. Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1123\/jpah.2011-0347","article-title":"Detection of physical activity types using triaxial accelerometers","volume":"11","author":"Skotte","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Phys. Act. Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35697","DOI":"10.2196\/35697","article-title":"The surveillance of physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep: Protocol for the development and feasibility evaluation of a novel measurement system","volume":"11","author":"Crowley","year":"2022","journal-title":"JMIR Res. Proto"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S59","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2000.11082788","article-title":"Measurement issues in the assessment of physical activity in children","volume":"71","author":"Welk","year":"2000","journal-title":"Res. Q. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-020-00930-x","article-title":"Variations in accelerometry measured physical activity and sedentary time across Europe\u2014Harmonized analyses of 47,497 children and adolescents","volume":"17","author":"Hansen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-015-0274-5","article-title":"Objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time in youth: The international children\u2019s accelerometry database (ICAD)","volume":"12","author":"Cooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-14869-0","article-title":"A systematic review of the clustering and correlates of physical activity and sedentary behavior among boys and girls","volume":"23","author":"Bertuol","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"ApS, S.I. (2023, November 30). Available online: https:\/\/www.sens.dk\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hettiarachchi, P., Aili, K., Holtermann, A., Stamatakis, E., Svartengren, M., and Palm, P. (2021). Validity of a Non-Proprietary Algorithm for Identifying Lying Down Using Raw Data from Thigh-Worn Triaxial Accelerometers. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21030904"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"The National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NFA) (2024, October 09). ActiMotus (2.0.0) [Computer Software]. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/motus-nfa\/ActiMotus."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Rossum, G.V., and Drake, F.L. (2009). Python 3 Reference Manual, CreateSpace."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shah, C. (2022). A Hands-On Introduction to Machine Learning, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781009122092"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"R Core Team (2022). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1","article-title":"Building predictive models in R using the caret package","volume":"28","author":"Kuhn","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Statl. Softw."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Fox, J., and Weisberg, S. (2019). An R Companion to Applied Regression, SAGE. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Signorell, A. (2024, October 09). DescTools: Tools for Descriptive Statistics, R Package Version 0.99.23. Available online: https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/package=DescTools."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2150132719874252","DOI":"10.1177\/2150132719874252","article-title":"Accuracy of accelerometers for measuring physical activity and levels of sedentary behavior in children: A systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Lynch","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Prim. Care Community Health"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-789X.2011.00896.x","article-title":"A systematic review of the validity and reliability of sedentary behaviour measures used with children and adolescents","volume":"12","author":"Lubans","year":"2011","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2008.10.008","article-title":"Methodological considerations in using accelerometers to assess habitual physical activity in children aged 0\u20135 years","volume":"12","author":"Cliff","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2023-106780","article-title":"Are we ready for wearable-based global physical activity surveillance?","volume":"58","author":"Nidhi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hendry, D., Rohl, A., Rasmussen, C.L., Zabatiero, J., Cliff, D.P., Smith, S.S., Mackenzie, J., Pattinson, C.L., Straker, L., and Campbell, A. (2023). Objective measurement of posture and movement in young children using wearable sensors and customised mathematical approaches: A systematic review. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23249661"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Rohl, A.L., Fang, U., Rasmussen, C.L., Hendry, D., Doherty, A., Straker, L., and Campbell, A. (Sensors, 2024). Machine and deep learning Classifiers for activity recognition in children from thigh-worn accelerometer data, Sensors, under review."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/20\/6705\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:16:13Z","timestamp":1760112973000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/20\/6705"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s24206705"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24206705","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]]}}}