{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T07:42:09Z","timestamp":1768981329441,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]],"date-time":"2024-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730332800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Guangxi Science and Technology Base and Talent Project for Guangxi Science and Technology Plan Project: Construction of Guangxi Transportation New Technology Transfer Center Platform","award":["Guike AD23026029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Guike AD23026029"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Science and Technology Base and Talent Project for Guangxi Science and Technology Plan Project: Construction of Guangxi Transportation New Technology Transfer Center Platform","award":["20223230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20223230"]}]},{"name":"Guangxi Science and Technology Base and Talent Project for Guangxi Science and Technology Plan Project: Construction of Guangxi Transportation New Technology Transfer Center Platform","award":["21-220-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-220-21"]}]},{"name":"Construction of Scientific and Technological Innovation Bases for Science Research and Technology Development Plan Project of Nanning City: Intelligent Operation and Maintenance of Transportation Infrastructure and Health Monitoring Platform","award":["Guike AD23026029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Guike AD23026029"]}]},{"name":"Construction of Scientific and Technological Innovation Bases for Science Research and Technology Development Plan Project of Nanning City: Intelligent Operation and Maintenance of Transportation Infrastructure and Health Monitoring Platform","award":["20223230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20223230"]}]},{"name":"Construction of Scientific and Technological Innovation Bases for Science Research and Technology Development Plan Project of Nanning City: Intelligent Operation and Maintenance of Transportation Infrastructure and Health Monitoring Platform","award":["21-220-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-220-21"]}]},{"name":"Transportation Operation Subsidy Project of Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation in 2021","award":["Guike AD23026029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Guike AD23026029"]}]},{"name":"Transportation Operation Subsidy Project of Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation in 2021","award":["20223230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20223230"]}]},{"name":"Transportation Operation Subsidy Project of Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation in 2021","award":["21-220-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-220-21"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mixed non-motorized traffic is largely unaffected by motor vehicle congestion, offering high accessibility and convenience, and thus serving as a primary mode of \u201clast-mile\u201d transportation in urban areas. To advance stochastic capacity estimation methods and provide reliable assessments of non-motorized roadway capacity, this study proposes a stochastic capacity estimation model based on power spectral analysis. The model treats discrete traffic flow data as a time-series signal and employs a stochastic signal parameter model to fit stochastic traffic flow patterns. Initially, UAVs and video cameras are used to capture videos of mixed non-motorized traffic flow. The video data were processed with an image detection algorithm based on the YOLO convolutional neural network and a video tracking algorithm using the DeepSORT multi-target tracking model, extracting data on traffic flow, density, speed, and rider characteristics. Then, the autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation functions of the signal are employed to distinguish among four classical stochastic signal parameter models. The model parameters are optimized by minimizing the AIC information criterion to identify the model with optimal fit. The fitted parametric models are analyzed by transforming them from the time domain to the frequency domain, and the power spectrum estimation model is then calculated. The experimental results show that the stochastic capacity model yields a pure EV capacity of 2060\u20133297 bikes\/(h\u00b7m) and a pure bicycle capacity of 1538\u20132460 bikes\/(h\u00b7m). The density\u2013flow model calculates a pure EV capacity of 2349\u20132897 bikes\/(h\u00b7m) and a pure bicycle capacity of 1753\u20132173 bikes\/(h\u00b7m). The minimal difference between these estimates validates the effectiveness of the proposed model. These findings hold practical significance in addressing urban road congestion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24217045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,1]],"date-time":"2024-11-01T13:09:27Z","timestamp":1730466567000},"page":"7045","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A Study of Mixed Non-Motorized Traffic Flow Characteristics and Capacity Based on Multi-Source Video Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6299-5996","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guobin","family":"Gu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation, Nanning University, Nanning 530200, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Nuclear Engineering Consulting Co., Ltd., Beijing 102200, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3320-2077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benxiao","family":"Lou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation, Nanning University, Nanning 530200, China"},{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bingheng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianqiu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation, Nanning University, Nanning 530200, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shiqian","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qingwei","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chun","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangxi Key Laboratory of International Join for China-ASEAN Comprehensive Transportation, Nanning University, Nanning 530200, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2022.3228750","article-title":"Evolutionary minimization of traffic congestion","volume":"27","author":"Schiller","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102126","article-title":"How does parking availability interplay with the land use and affect traffic congestion in urban areas? The case study of Xi\u2019an, China","volume":"57","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23059","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2022.3198178","article-title":"Large-scale urban multiple-modal transport evacuation model for mass gathering events considering pedestrian and public transit system","volume":"23","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-01118-w","article-title":"Running a car costs much more than people think\u2014Stalling the uptake of green travel","volume":"580","author":"Andor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2017.06.025","article-title":"Exploring the motivation-behavior gap in urban residents\u2019 green travel behavior: A theoretical and empirical study","volume":"125","author":"Geng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patella, S.M., Grazieschi, G., Gatta, V., Marcucci, E., and Carrese, S. (2020). The adoption of green vehicles in last mile logistics: A systematic review. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13010006"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2018.08.004","article-title":"Built environment, non-motorized travel and overall physical activity","volume":"16","year":"2019","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trb.2020.11.009","article-title":"On string stability of a mixed and heterogeneous traffic flow: A unifying modelling framework","volume":"144","author":"Montanino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part B Methodol"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., and Chen, Q. (2016). An algorithm for the mixed transportation network design problem. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162618"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, P., and Pan, W. (2024). Collaborative optimization model and algorithm for airport capacity and traffic flow allocation. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0298540"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, J., Ma, S., Zhang, L., Wang, Q., and Feng, G. (2022). Modeling and simulation for non-motorized vehicle flow on road based on modified social force model. Mathematics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/math11010170"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, S., Tong, W., Jia, Z., and Zou, J. (2023). Study on the spatial and temporal distribution and traffic flow parameters of non-motorized vehicles on highway segments crossing small towns. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15021261"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"14","article-title":"Operating speed of mixed traffic flow of motorized vehicle and non-motorized vehicle on urban road","volume":"26","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1007\/s11116-018-9907-2","article-title":"A utility-based bicycle speed choice model with time and energy factors","volume":"46","author":"Bigazzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transportation"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2021.103178","article-title":"Anomaly detection and classification in traffic flow data from fluctuations in the flow-density relationship","volume":"127","author":"Kalair","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12445","article-title":"Lane width-based cellular automata model for mixed bicycle traffic flow","volume":"34","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2021.11.021","article-title":"Traffic flow at signalized intersections with large volumes of bicycle traffic","volume":"155","author":"Grigoropoulos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"340","article-title":"A macroscopic flow model for mixed bicycle\u2013car traffic","volume":"17","author":"Wierbos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transportmetrica"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, T., Liu, J.-Y., Liang, C., Tian, X., Chen, C., and Liu, K. (2023). Analysis of left-turn behaviors of non-motorized vehicles and vehicle-bicycle conflicts. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0291504"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2314762","DOI":"10.1080\/21680566.2024.2314762","article-title":"Modelling motorized and non-motorized vehicle conflicts using multiagent inverse reinforcement learning approach","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transportmetr. B Transp. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, J., Jia, Z., Cai, T., Song, X., and Mahmood, A. (2023). Dynamic Correlation Adjacency-Matrix-Based Graph Neural Networks for Traffic Flow Prediction. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23062897"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2024.124424","article-title":"A Multi-Factor Combined Traffic Flow Prediction Model with Secondary Decomposition and Improved Entropy Weight Method","volume":"255","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2021.06.082","article-title":"A Genetic Timing Scheduling Model for Urban Traffic Signal Control","volume":"576","author":"Huan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-015-0701-y","article-title":"A Swarm Intelligent Method for Traffic Light Scheduling: Application to Real Urban Traffic Networks","volume":"44","author":"Wen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trb.2018.05.018","article-title":"Bicycle sharing system design with capacity allocations","volume":"114","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part B Methodol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"31","article-title":"Bicycle traffic flow characteristics: Experimental results and comparisons","volume":"64","author":"Navin","year":"1994","journal-title":"ITE J. Inst. Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"38","article-title":"Method to determine level of service for bicycle paths and pedestrian-bicycle paths","volume":"1502","author":"Botma","year":"1995","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"18","article-title":"Operational analysis of bicycle interchanges in Beijing, China","volume":"1396","author":"Liu","year":"1993","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1287\/trsc.2023.0193","article-title":"Bicycle flow dynamics of cyclist loading and unloading processes at bottlenecks","volume":"58","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2021.103401","article-title":"A spatial modeling approach to estimating bike share traffic volume from GPS data","volume":"76","author":"Brown","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2017.03.003","article-title":"Estimation of passenger car equivalents for single-lane roundabouts using a microsimulation-based procedure","volume":"79","author":"Tumminello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sugiarto, S., Apriandy, F., Darma, Y., Saleh, S.M., Rusdi, M., and Miwa, T. (2021). Determining passenger car equivalent (PCEs) for pre-timed signalized intersections with severe motorcycle composition using Bayesian linear regression. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256620"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2015.06.001","article-title":"Lane-harmonised passenger car equivalents for heterogeneous expressway traffic","volume":"78","author":"Yeung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simpat.2017.11.005","article-title":"Capacity-based calculation of passenger car equivalents using traffic simulation at double-lane roundabouts","volume":"81","author":"Tumminello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Simul. Model. Pract. Theory"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., and Tak, T.-O. (2021). Efficiency evaluation of electric bicycle power transmission systems. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su131910988"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/S1007-0214(07)70047-0","article-title":"Bicycle conversion factor calibration at two-phase intersections in mixed traffic flows","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tsinghua Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198120920880","article-title":"Evidence from urban roads without bicycle lanes on the impact of bicycle traffic on passenger car travel speeds","volume":"2674","author":"Schaefer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Yuan, H., Wang, Y., and Xiao, C. (2022). GGT-YOLO: A novel object detection algorithm for drone-based maritime cruising. Drones, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones6110335"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pacal, I., Karaman, A., Karabo\u011fa, D., Akay, B., Ba\u015ft\u00fcrk, A., Nalbanto\u011flu, U., and Coskun, S. (2022). An efficient real-time colonic polyp detection with YOLO algorithms trained by using negative samples and large datasets. Comput. Biol. Med., 141.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2021.105031"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4731","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-023-15813-z","article-title":"CNA-DeepSORT algorithm for multi-target tracking","volume":"83","author":"Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2023.107304","article-title":"TATrack: Target-aware transformer for object tracking","volume":"127","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21239","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3367415","article-title":"Adaptive feature fusion and improved attention mechanism-based small object detection for UAV target tracking","volume":"11","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2020.112745","article-title":"Two-bay pultruded GFRP safety barrier\/guardrail\u2014Testing, analysis and compliance with standards","volume":"253","author":"Turvey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2023.113813","article-title":"A modified social force model for studying nonlinear dynamics of pedestrian-e-bike mixed flow at a signalized crosswalk","volume":"174","author":"Fu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chaos Solitons Fractals"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Fu, C., and Wang, W. (2021). Modeling duration of overtaking between non-motorized vehicles: A nonparametric survival analysis-based approach. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244883"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maris, E. (2023). A bicycle can be balanced by stochastic optimal feedback control but only with accurate speed estimates. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.24404\/63F649C20CEA3689DFAED39E"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2023.104439","article-title":"Integrated self-consistent macro-micro traffic flow modeling and calibration framework based on trajectory data","volume":"158","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/21\/7045\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:26:06Z","timestamp":1760113566000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/21\/7045"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s24217045"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s24217045","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]]}}}