{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:39:01Z","timestamp":1760146741593,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,5]],"date-time":"2024-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SIDSEA project","award":["PITHIA-NRF 2022\/2_09_SIDSEA","101007599","2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PITHIA-NRF 2022\/2_09_SIDSEA","101007599","2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"]}]},{"name":"EU project funded through the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme","award":["PITHIA-NRF 2022\/2_09_SIDSEA","101007599","2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PITHIA-NRF 2022\/2_09_SIDSEA","101007599","2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"]}]},{"name":"National Science Centre (NCN) of Poland","award":["PITHIA-NRF 2022\/2_09_SIDSEA","101007599","2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PITHIA-NRF 2022\/2_09_SIDSEA","101007599","2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study demonstrates a rich complexity of the time\u2013frequency ionospheric signal spectrum, dependent on the measurement type and platform. Different phenomena contributing to satellite-derived and ground-derived geophysical data that only selected signal bands can be potentially sensitive to seismicity over time, and they are applicable in lithosphere\u2013atmosphere\u2013ionosphere coupling (LAIC) studies. In this study, satellite-derived and ground-derived ionospheric observations are filtered by a Fourier-based band-pass filter, and an experimental selection of potentially sensitive frequency bands has been carried out. This work focuses on band-pass filtered ionospheric observations and seismic activity in the region of the Aegean Sea over a two-year time period (2020\u20132021), with particular focus on the entire system of tectonic plate junctions, which are suspected to be a potential source of ionospheric disturbances distributed over hundreds of kilometers. The temporal evolution of seismicity power in the Aegean region is represented by the record of earthquakes characterized by M \u2265 4.5, used for the estimation of cumulative seismic energy. The ionospheric response to LAIC is explored in three data types: short inspections of in situ electron density (Ne) over a tectonic plate boundary by Swarm satellites, stationary determination of three Ne density profile parameters by the Athens Digisonde station AT138 (maximum frequency of the F2 layer: foF2; maximum frequency of the sporadic E layer: foEs; and frequency spread: ff), and stationary measure of vertical total electron content (VTEC) interpolated from a UPC-IonSAT Quarter-of-an-hour time resolution Rapid Global ionospheric map (UQRG) near Athens. The spectrograms are made with the use of short-term Fourier transform (STFT). These frequency bands in the spectrograms, which show a notable coincidence with seismicity, are filtered out and compared to cumulative seismic energy in the Aegean Sea, to the geomagnetic Dst index, to sunspot number (SN), and to the solar radio flux (F10.7). In the case of Swarm, STFT allows for precise removal of long-wavelength Ne signals related to specific latitudes. The application of STFT to time series of ionospheric parameters from the Digisonde station and GIM VTEC is crucial in the removal of seasonal signals and strong diurnal and semi-diurnal signal components. The time series formed from experimentally selected wavebands of different ionospheric observations reveal a moderate but notable correlation with the seismic activity, higher than with any solar radiation parameter in 8 out of 12 cases. The correlation coefficient must be treated relatively and with caution here, as we have not determined the shift between seismic and ionospheric events, as this process requires more data. However, it can be observed from the spectrograms that some weak signals from selected frequencies are candidates to be related to seismic processes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24237795","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,5]],"date-time":"2024-12-05T09:30:18Z","timestamp":1733391018000},"page":"7795","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sensitivity of Band-Pass Filtered In Situ Low-Earth Orbit and Ground-Based Ionosphere Observations to Lithosphere\u2013Atmosphere\u2013Ionosphere Coupling Over the Aegean Sea: Spectral Analysis of Two-Year Ionospheric Data Series"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7654-458X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wojciech","family":"Jarmo\u0142owski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Belehaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Astronomy Astrophysics Space Applications and Remote Sensing, National Observatory of Athens, Metaxa & V. Pavlou, 15236 Penteli, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5542-1481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Wielgosz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Holdsworth, R.E., Strachan, R.A., Magloughlin, J.F., and Knipe, R.J. (2001). The nature and tectonic significance of fault-zone weakening: An introduction. 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