{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T17:24:19Z","timestamp":1789838659864,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]],"date-time":"2025-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736380800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wearable motion capture gloves enable the precise analysis of hand and finger movements for a variety of uses, including robotic surgery, rehabilitation, and most commonly, virtual augmentation. However, many motion capture gloves restrict natural hand movement with a closed-palm design, including fabric over the palm and fingers. In order to alleviate slippage, improve comfort, reduce sizing issues, and eliminate movement restrictions, this paper presents a new low-cost data glove with an innovative open-palm and finger-free design. The new design improves usability and overall functionality by addressing the limitations of traditional closed-palm designs. It is especially beneficial in capturing movements in fields such as physical therapy and robotic surgery. The new glove incorporates resistive flex sensors (RFSs) at each finger and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) at the wrist joint to measure wrist flexion, extension, ulnar and radial deviation, and rotation. Initially the sensors were tested individually for drift, synchronisation delays, and linearity. The results show a drift of 6.60\u00b0\/h in the IMU and no drift in the RFSs. There was a 0.06 s delay in the data captured by the IMU compared to the RFSs. The glove\u2019s performance was tested with a collaborate robot testing setup. In static conditions, it was found that the IMU had a worst case error across three trials of 7.01\u00b0 and a mean absolute error (MAE) averaged over three trials of 4.85\u00b0, while RFSs had a worst case error of 3.77\u00b0 and a MAE of 1.25\u00b0 averaged over all five RFSs used. There was no clear correlation between measurement error and speed. Overall, the new glove design proved to accurately measure joint angles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25020367","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,10]],"date-time":"2025-01-10T03:48:11Z","timestamp":1736480891000},"page":"367","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The Design and Validation of an Open-Palm Data Glove for Precision Finger and Wrist Tracking"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3717-5182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivia","family":"Hosie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3047-6811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mats","family":"Isaksson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"McCormick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Transformative Media Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2281-6399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oren","family":"Tirosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"},{"name":"College of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shanghai University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shanghai 200237, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chrys","family":"Hensman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Robotics, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia"},{"name":"LapSurgery Australia, Dandenong North, VIC 3175, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204925","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202204925","article-title":"Smart Mechanoluminescent Phosphors: A Review of Strontium-Aluminate-Based Materials, Properties, and Their Advanced Application Technologies","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schr\u00f6der, M., Maycock, J., and Botsch, M. (2015, January 16\u201318). Reduced marker layouts for optical motion capture of hands. Proceedings of the 8th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion in Games, MIG\u201915, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1145\/2822013.2822026"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casile, A., Fregna, G., Boarini, V., Paoluzzi, C., Manfredini, F., Lamberti, N., Baroni, A., and Straudi, S. (2023). Quantitative Comparison of Hand Kinematics Measured with a Markerless Commercial Head-Mounted Display and a Marker-Based Motion Capture System in Stroke Survivors. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202307.1645.v1"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1002\/mdc3.12536","article-title":"Optical Hand Tracking: A Novel Technique for the Assessment of Bradykinesia in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"4","author":"Bank","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caeiro-Rodr\u00edguez, M., Otero-Gonz\u00e1lez, I., Mikic-Fonte, F.A., and Llamas-Nistal, M. (2021). A Systematic Review of Commercial Smart Gloves: Current Status and Applications. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082667"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.H., Queir\u00f3s, S., Fonseca, J., Rodrigues, P.L., Rodrigues, N.F., and Vilaca, J.L. (2014, January 14\u201316). Real-time hand tracking for rehabilitation and character animation. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 3nd International Conference on Serious Games and Applications for Health (SeGAH), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/SeGAH.2014.7067086"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105001","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5038601","article-title":"An instrumented glove for monitoring hand function","volume":"89","author":"Mohan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weber, P., Rueckert, E., Calandra, R., Peters, J., and Beckerle, P. (2016, January 26\u201331). A low-cost sensor glove with vibrotactile feedback and multiple finger joint and hand motion sensing for human-robot interaction. Proceedings of the 2016 25th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2016.7745096"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chander, H., Burch, R.F., Talegaonkar, P., Saucier, D., Luczak, T., Ball, J.E., Turner, A., Kodithuwakku Arachchige, S.N.K., Carroll, W., and Smith, B.K. (2020). Wearable Stretch Sensors for Human Movement Monitoring and Fall Detection in Ergonomics. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17103554"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saggio, G., Orengo, G., Pallotti, A., Errico, V., and Ricci, M. (2018, January 11\u201313). Evaluation of an integrated sensory glove at decreasing joint flexion degree. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2018.8438767"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2162","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3337139","article-title":"Quasi-Static Measurement Performances of Flex-Sensor-Based and Inertial-Measurement-Unit-Based Sensory Gloves","volume":"24","author":"Calado","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Surangsrirat, D., Bualuangngam, T., Sri-iesaranusorn, P., Chaiyaroj, A., Buekban, C., Thanawattano, C., and Poopitaya, S. (2022). Comparison of the Wrist Range of Motion Measurement between Inertial Measurement Unit Glove, Smartphone Device and Standard Goniometer. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12073418"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2003.03.0181","article-title":"Evaluation of an instrumented glove for hand-movement acquisition","volume":"40","author":"Dipietro","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002","DOI":"10.4304\/jsw.9.8.2002-2009","article-title":"Conversion of Sign Language to Spoken Sentences by Means of a Sensory Glove","volume":"9","author":"Cavallo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Softw."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Perret, J., and Vander Poorten, E. (2018, January 25\u201327). Touching Virtual Reality: A Review of Haptic Gloves. Proceedings of the ACTUATOR 2018: 16th International Conference on New Actuators, Bremen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sim, D., Baek, Y., Cho, M., Park, S., Sagar, A.S.M.S., and Kim, H.S. (2021). Low-Latency Haptic Open Glove for Immersive Virtual Reality Interaction. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21113682"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connolly, J., Condell, J., Curran, K., and Gardiner, P. (2022). Improving Data Glove Accuracy and Usability Using a Neural Network When Measuring Finger Joint Range of Motion. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22062228"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khamis, H., Xia, B., and Redmond, S.J. (June, January 30). Real-time Friction Estimation for Grip Force Control. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA48506.2021.9561640"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, K., and Choosri, N. (2023, January 22\u201325). Commercial Data Glove Selection for VR-based hand Rehabilitation Gaming project. Proceedings of the 2023 Joint International Conference on Digital Arts, Media and Technology with ECTI Northern Section Conference on Electrical, Electronics, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering (ECTI DAMT & NCON), Phuket, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECTIDAMTNCON57770.2023.10139415"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Rokoko (2024, December 19). Smartgloves Product Page. Available online: https:\/\/www.rokoko.com\/products\/smartgloves."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Manus Meta (2024, December 19). Entertainment Solutions Overview. Available online: https:\/\/www.manus-meta.com\/entertainment."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"StretchSense (2024, December 19). MoCap Studio Product Page. Available online: https:\/\/stretchsense.com\/mocap-studio\/."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1007\/s40846-018-0434-6","article-title":"A Modular Data Glove System for Finger and Hand Motion Capture Based on Inertial Sensors","volume":"39","author":"Lin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2184","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2250286","article-title":"Markerless Motion Capture and Measurement of Hand Kinematics: Validation and Application to Home-Based Upper Limb Rehabilitation","volume":"60","author":"Metcalf","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1108\/IR-07-2016-0179","article-title":"A novel data glove using inertial and magnetic sensors for motion capture and robotic arm-hand teleoperation","volume":"44","author":"Fang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ind. Robot. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddiqui, N., and Chan, R.H.M. (2020). Multimodal hand gesture recognition using single IMU and acoustic measurements at wrist. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227039"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16448","DOI":"10.3390\/s150716448","article-title":"An Inertial and Optical Sensor Fusion Approach for Six Degree-of-Freedom Pose Estimation","volume":"15","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"4096","article-title":"A Linear Algorithm for Tracing Magnet Position and Orientation by Using Three-Axis Magnetic Sensors","volume":"42","author":"Hu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, J., Ravankar, A.A., Kobayashi, Y., and Emaru, T. (2016, January 13\u201315). A method of low-cost IMU calibration and alignment. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/SICE International Symposium on System Integration (SII), Sapporo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/SII.2016.7844027"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.12720\/ijsps.1.2.256-262","article-title":"Reviews on various inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensor applications","volume":"1","author":"Ahmad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Signal Process. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2009.03.0031","article-title":"Feasibility of controlling prosthetic hand using sonomyography signal in real time: Preliminary study","volume":"47","author":"Shi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sbcrnini, L., Pallotti, A., and Saggio, G. (2016, January 15\u201318). Evaluation of a Stretch Sensor for its Inedited Application in Tracking Hand Finger Movements. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MEMEA), Benevento, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2016.7533809"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2309997","article-title":"Modeling Wearable Bend Sensor Behavior for Human Motion Capture","volume":"14","author":"Orengo","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saggio, G., Bisegna, P., Latessa, G., and Bocchetti, S. (2009, January 15\u201319). Mechanical modeling of bend sensors exploited to measure human joint movements. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks & Workshops, Kos, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/WOWMOM.2009.5282407"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Universal Robots (2024, October 01). Robot STEP File for UR5e (E-Series). Available online: https:\/\/www.universal-robots.com\/download\/mechanical-e-series\/ur5e\/robot-step-file-ur5e-e-series\/."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/10803548.2014.11077038","article-title":"Flexion and Extension Angles of Resting Fingers and Wrist","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-015-2786-y","article-title":"2-Level error (drift) compensation for low-cost MEMS-based inertial measurement unit (IMU)","volume":"22","author":"Ompusunggu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2018.02.035","article-title":"Flex sensor characterization against shape and curvature changes","volume":"273","author":"Saggio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1273","article-title":"IMU Sensor-Based Electronic Goniometric Glove for Clinical Finger Movement Analysis","volume":"18","author":"Connolly","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"82","article-title":"IMU sensor-based data glove for finger joint measurement","volume":"20","author":"Hazman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2008.11.005","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a low-cost sensor glove for assessment of human finger movements in neurophysiological settings","volume":"178","author":"Gentner","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2006.09.021","article-title":"A low cost instrumented glove for extended monitoring and functional hand assessment","volume":"160","author":"Simone","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2023.3265102","article-title":"Dynamic Measurement Assessments of Sensory Gloves Based on Resistive Flex Sensors and Inertial Measurement Units","volume":"72","author":"Saggio","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/2\/367\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:26:05Z","timestamp":1759919165000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/2\/367"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s25020367"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s25020367","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]]}}}