{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T13:39:36Z","timestamp":1771508376061,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]],"date-time":"2025-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Manitoba Endowed Manitoba Public Insurance (MPI) Chair in Neuroscience","award":["ALLRP-578524-22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ALLRP-578524-22"]}]},{"name":"University of Manitoba Endowed Manitoba Public Insurance (MPI) Chair in Neuroscience","award":["ALLRP 597708-24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ALLRP 597708-24"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","award":["ALLRP-578524-22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ALLRP-578524-22"]}]},{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","award":["ALLRP 597708-24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ALLRP 597708-24"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Goal: Current methodologies for assessing cerebral compliance using pressure sensor technologies are prone to errors and issues with inter- and intra-observer consistency. RAP, a metric for measuring intracranial compensatory reserve (and therefore compliance), holds promise. It is derived using the moving correlation between intracranial pressure (ICP) and the pulse amplitude of ICP (AMP). RAP remains largely unexplored in cases of moderate to severe acute traumatic neural injury (also known as traumatic brain injury (TBI)). The goal of this work is to explore the general description of (a) RAP signal patterns and behaviors derived from ICP pressure transducers, (b) temporal statistical relationships, and (c) the characterization of the artifact profile. Methods: Different summary and statistical measurements were used to describe RAP\u2019s pattern and behaviors, along with performing sub-group analyses. The autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model was employed to outline the time-series structure of RAP across different temporal resolutions using the autoregressive (p-order) and moving average orders (q-order). After leveraging the time-series structure of RAP, similar methods were applied to ICP and AMP for comparison with RAP. Finally, key features were identified to distinguish artifacts in RAP. This might involve leveraging ICP\/AMP signals and statistical structures. Results: The mean and time spent within the RAP threshold ranges ([0.4, 1], (0, 0.4), and [\u22121, 0]) indicate that RAP exhibited high positive values, suggesting an impaired compensatory reserve in TBI patients. The median optimal ARIMA model for each resolution and each signal was determined. Autocorrelative function (ACF) and partial ACF (PACF) plots of residuals verified the adequacy of these median optimal ARIMA models. The median of residuals indicates that ARIMA performed better with the higher-resolution data. To identify artifacts, (a) ICP q-order, AMP p-order, and RAP p-order and q-order, (b) residuals of ICP, AMP, and RAP, and (c) cross-correlation between residuals of RAP and AMP proved to be useful at the minute-by-minute resolution, whereas, for the 10-min-by-10-min data resolution, only the q-order of the optimal ARIMA model of ICP and AMP served as a distinguishing factor. Conclusions: RAP signals derived from ICP pressure sensor technology displayed reproducible behaviors across this population of TBI patients. ARIMA modeling at the higher resolution provided comparatively strong accuracy, and key features were identified leveraging these models that could identify RAP artifacts. Further research is needed to enhance artifact management and broaden applicability across varied datasets.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25020586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]],"date-time":"2025-01-20T10:32:15Z","timestamp":1737369135000},"page":"586","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Characterization of RAP Signal Patterns, Temporal Relationships, and Artifact Profiles Derived from Intracranial Pressure Sensors in Acute Traumatic Neural Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6669-3374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abrar","family":"Islam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3231-5683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanjyot Singh","family":"Sainbhi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5983-008X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin Y.","family":"Stein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"},{"name":"Undergraduate Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2764-145X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuray","family":"Vakitbilir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3737-2065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alwyn","family":"Gomez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3860-8134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noah","family":"Silvaggio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Bergmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1131-2398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mansoor","family":"Hayat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6076-0189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Logan","family":"Froese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Karolinksa Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1737-0510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederick A.","family":"Zeiler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"},{"name":"Section of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Karolinksa Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"},{"name":"Pan Am Clinic Foundation, Winnipeg, MB R3M 3E4, Canada"},{"name":"Division of Anaesthesia, Department of Medicine, Addenbrooke\u2019s Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30371-X","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury: Integrated approaches to improve prevention, clinical care, and research","volume":"16","author":"Maas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1227\/NEU.0000000000001432","article-title":"Guidelines for the Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury, Fourth 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