{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:08:07Z","timestamp":1787029687291,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]],"date-time":"2025-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741737600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) often results in significant impairments in gait stability, symmetry, and smoothness. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) have emerged as powerful tools to quantify these aspects of gait, but their clinometric properties in sTBI populations remain underexplored. This study aimed to assess the test-retest reliability and minimal detectable change (MDC) of three IMU-derived indices\u2014normalized Root Mean Square (nRMS), improved Harmonic Ratio (iHR), and Log Dimensionless Jerk (LDLJ)\u2014during a 10 m walking test for sTBI survivors. Forty-nine participants with sTBI completed the walking test, with IMUs placed on key body segments to capture accelerations and angular velocities. Test-retest analyses revealed moderate to excellent reliability for nRMS and iHR in anteroposterior (ICC: 0.78\u20130.95 and 0.94, respectively) and craniocaudal directions (ICC: 0.95), with small MDC values, supporting their clinical applicability (MDC: 0.04\u20130.3). However, iHR in the mediolateral direction exhibited greater variability (ICC: 0.80; MDC: 9.74), highlighting potential sensitivity challenges. LDLJ metrics showed moderate reliability (ICC: 0.57\u20130.77) and higher MDC values (0.55\u20130.75), suggesting the need for further validation. These findings underscore the reliability and sensitivity of specific IMU-derived indices in detecting meaningful gait changes in sTBI survivors, paving the way for refined assessments and monitoring the rehabilitation process of sTBI survivors. Future research should explore these indices\u2019 responsiveness to interventions and their correlation with functional outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25061764","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]],"date-time":"2025-03-12T10:45:06Z","timestamp":1741776306000},"page":"1764","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Test-Retest Reliability and Minimal Detectable Changes for Wearable Sensor-Derived Gait Stability, Symmetry, and Smoothness in Individuals with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8431-600X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fulvio","family":"Dal Farra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5329-5197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano Filippo","family":"Castiglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome Polo Pontino, 04100 Latina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1307-8707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Gabriella","family":"Buzzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, via Ardeatina, 354, 00179 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2545-3930","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Brasiliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome \u201cForo Italico\u201d, Piazza Lauro De Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"De Angelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, via Ardeatina, 354, 00179 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3618-162X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianluca","family":"Paolocci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, via Ardeatina, 354, 00179 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-6126-3589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simona","family":"Vasta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cognitive, Psychological Pedagogical and Cultural Studies (COSPECS), University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Marangon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0884-3315","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amaranta Soledad","family":"Orejel Bustos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, via Ardeatina, 354, 00179 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome \u201cForo Italico\u201d, Piazza Lauro De Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9055-3981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Bergamini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome \u201cForo Italico\u201d, Piazza Lauro De Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Management, Information and Production Engineering, University of Bergamo, Via Marconi 4, 24044 Dalmine, Bergamo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viviana","family":"Betti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, via Ardeatina, 354, 00179 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6034-0638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Tramontano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Occupational Medicine, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.3171\/2017.10.JNS17352","article-title":"Estimating the Global Incidence of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"130","author":"Dewan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, A., Prince, M., Brayne, C., and Prina, A.M. (2015). Lifetime Prevalence and Factors Associated with Head Injury among Older People in Low and Middle Income Countries: A 10\/66 Study. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0132229"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lecky, F.E., Otesile, O., Marincowitz, C., Majdan, M., Nieboer, D., Lingsma, H.F., Maegele, M., Citerio, G., Stocchetti, N., and Steyerberg, E.W. (2021). The burden of traumatic brain injury from low-energy falls among patients from 18 countries in the CENTER-TBI Registry: A comparative cohort study. PLoS Med., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003761"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2019.11.001","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury: An Overview of Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Medical Management","volume":"104","author":"Capizzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04587-z","article-title":"Severe acquired brain injury and high specialty neurorehabilitation needs","volume":"42","author":"Formisano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2019.1641747","article-title":"Clinical practice guidelines for rehabilitation in traumatic brain injury: A critical appraisal","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2022.09.012","article-title":"Virtual reality for balance and mobility rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"105","author":"Alashram","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2022.2096258","article-title":"Feasibility of virtual reality and treadmill training in traumatic brain injury: A randomized controlled pilot trial","volume":"36","author":"Tefertiller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belluscio, V., Bergamini, E., Tramontano, M., Orejel Bustos, A., Allevi, G., Formisano, R., Vannozzi, G., and Buzzi, M.G. (2019). Gait Quality Assessment in Survivors from Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: An Instrumented Approach Based on Inertial Sensors. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19235315"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04300-0","article-title":"Long-term impact of mild traumatic brain injury on postural stability and executive function","volume":"41","author":"Kunker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2015.08.012","article-title":"Static and dynamic postural stability in veterans with combat-related mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"42","author":"Pan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.3233\/BMR-171015","article-title":"Effects of robot assistive upper extremity rehabilitation on motor and cognitive recovery, the quality of life, and activities of daily living in stroke patients","volume":"31","author":"Safer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Back Musculoskelet. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Proulx, C.E., Jean, M.T.L., Higgins, J., Gagnon, D.H., and Dancause, N. (2022). Somesthetic, visual, and auditory feedback and their interactions applied to upper limb neurorehabilitation technology: A narrative review to facilitate contextualization of knowledge. Front. Rehabil. Sci., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fresc.2022.789479"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dever, A., Powell, D., Graham, L., Mason, R., Das, J., Marshall, S.J., Vitorio, R., Godfrey, A., and Stuart, S. (2022). Gait Impairment in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041480"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corrigan, F., Wee, I.C., and Collins-Praino, L.E. (2023). Chronic motor performance following different traumatic brain injury severity-A systematic review. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1180353"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.3233\/THC-212924","article-title":"Agreement between inertial measurement unit and optoelectronic system to measure postural sway","volume":"30","author":"Vagnini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technol. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prasanth, H., Caban, M., Keller, U., Courtine, G., Ijspeert, A., Vallery, H., and Von Zitzewitz, J. (2021). Wearable Sensor-Based Real-Time Gait Detection: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082727"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tramontano, M., Belluscio, V., Bergamini, E., Allevi, G., De Angelis, S., Verdecchia, G., Formisano, R., Vannozzi, G., and Buzzi, M.G. (2022). Vestibular Rehabilitation Improves Gait Quality and Activities of Daily Living in People with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218553"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trabassi, D., Serrao, M., Varrecchia, T., Ranavolo, A., Coppola, G., De Icco, R., Tassorelli, C., and Castiglia, S.F. (2022). Machine Learning Approach to Support the Detection of Parkinson's Disease in IMU-Based Gait Analysis. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103700"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trabassi, D., Castiglia, S.F., Bini, F., Marinozzi, F., Ajoudani, A., Lorenzini, M., Chini, G., Varrecchia, T., Ranavolo, A., and De Icco, R. (2024). Optimizing Rare Disease Gait Classification through Data Balancing and Generative AI: Insights from Hereditary Cerebellar Ataxia. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113613"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marimon, X., Mengual, I., L\u00f3pez-de-Celis, C., Portela, A., Rodr\u00edguez-Sanz, J., Herr\u00e1ez, I.A., and P\u00e9rez-Bellmunt, A. (2024). Kinematic Analysis of Human Gait in Healthy Young Adults Using IMU Sensors: Exploring Relevant Machine Learning Features for Clinical Applications. Bioengineering, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11020105"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pzac068","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/pzac068","article-title":"Revisiting the Concept of Minimal Detectable Change for Patient-Reported Outcome Measures","volume":"102","author":"Seamon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2038","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2019.1688872","article-title":"Test-retest reliability and minimal detectable change of the computerized dynamic posturography PROPRIO for adults with chronic traumatic brain injury","volume":"43","author":"Cesar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.23736\/S1973-9087.23.08156-X","article-title":"Cognitive-motor dual-task training improves dynamic stability during straight and curved gait in patients with multiple sclerosis: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"60","author":"Tramontano","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-019-0579-8","article-title":"Movement smoothness during a functional mobility task in subjects with Parkinson's disease and freezing of gait-an analysis using inertial measurement units","volume":"16","author":"Pinto","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-021-01361-5","article-title":"Identification of Gait Unbalance and Fallers Among Subjects with Cerebellar Ataxia by a Set of Trunk Acceleration-Derived Indices of Gait","volume":"22","author":"Castiglia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cerebellum (Lond. Engl.)"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-020-00685-3","article-title":"Validity and reliability of wearable inertial sensors in healthy adult walking: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Kobsar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2006.12.0158","article-title":"Motor impairment after severe traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal multicenter study","volume":"44","author":"Walker","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2014.04.001","article-title":"Gait variability and stability measures: Minimum number of strides and within-session reliability","volume":"50","author":"Riva","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kroneberg, D., Elshehabi, M., Meyer, A.C., Otte, K., Doss, S., Paul, F., Nussbaum, S., Berg, D., K\u00fchn, A.A., and Maetzler, W. (2019). Less Is More-Estimation of the Number of Strides Required to Assess Gait Variability in Spatially Confined Settings. Front. Aging Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2018.00435"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1017\/S135561770999141X","article-title":"Metacognitive unawareness correlates with executive function impairment after severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"16","author":"Ciurli","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"94","article-title":"Reliability and validity of the Disability Rating Scale and the Levels of Cognitive Functioning Scale in monitoring recovery from severe head injury","volume":"68","author":"Gouvier","year":"1987","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(75)90026-6","article-title":"\u201cMini-mental state\u201d. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician","volume":"12","author":"Folstein","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2007.11.008","article-title":"The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies","volume":"61","author":"Altman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-023-01625-2","article-title":"Quantitative Gait and Balance Outcomes for Ataxia Trials: Consensus Recommendations by the Ataxia Global Initiative Working Group on Digital-Motor Biomarkers","volume":"23","author":"Ilg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cerebellum (Lond. Engl.)"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-11-152","article-title":"Della Croce, Estimation of step-by-step spatio-temporal parameters of normal and impaired gait using shank-mounted magneto-inertial sensors: Application to elderly, hemiparetic, parkinsonian and choreic gait","volume":"11","author":"Trojaniello","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18625","DOI":"10.3390\/s141018625","article-title":"Estimating orientation using magnetic and inertial sensors and different sensor fusion approaches: Accuracy assessment in manual and locomotion tasks","volume":"14","author":"Bergamini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tramontano, M., Orejel Bustos, A.S., Montemurro, R., Vasta, S., Marangon, G., Belluscio, V., Morone, G., Modugno, N., Buzzi, M.G., and Formisano, R. (2024). Dynamic Stability, Symmetry, and Smoothness of Gait in People with Neurological Health Conditions. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24082451"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-10-118","article-title":"A gait abnormality measure based on root mean square of trunk acceleration","volume":"10","author":"Sekine","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2011.03.0057","article-title":"Assessment of upper-body dynamic stability during walking in patients with subacute stroke","volume":"49","author":"Iosa","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.01.005","article-title":"Overcoming the limitations of the Harmonic Ratio for the reliable assessment of gait symmetry","volume":"53","author":"Pasciuto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melendez-Calderon, A., Shirota, C., and Balasubramanian, S. (2021). Estimating Movement Smoothness From Inertial Measurement Units. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2020.558771"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/77.8.812","article-title":"Predicting the probability for falls in community-dwelling older adults","volume":"77","author":"Baldwin","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2008.08.013","article-title":"The Dynamic Gait Index in Healthy Older Adults: The Role of StairClimbing, Fear of Falling and Gender","volume":"29","author":"Herman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"S7","article-title":"Measuring balance in the elderly: Validation of an instrument","volume":"83","author":"Berg","year":"1992","journal-title":"Can. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Routledge. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcm.2016.02.012","article-title":"A Guideline of Selecting and Reporting Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for Reliability Research","volume":"15","author":"Koo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chiropr. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"231","article-title":"Quantifying test-retest reliability using the intraclass correlation coefficient and the SEM","volume":"19","author":"Weir","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(03)00069-9","article-title":"Test-retest reliability of trunk accelerometric gait analysis","volume":"19","author":"Henriksen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1007\/s40846-016-0178-0","article-title":"Stability and Harmony of Gait in Patients with Subacute Stroke","volume":"36","author":"Iosa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"E223","article-title":"Volitional Head Movement Deficits and Alterations in Gait Speed Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"38","author":"Loyd","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shiozaki, T., Okada, Y., Nakamura, J., Ueta, K., Tanaka, H., Moritani, M., and Kitahara, T. (2023). Relationships between changes in lateral vestibulospinal tract excitability and postural control by dynamic balance intervention in healthy individuals: A preliminary study. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1109690"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2012.12.008","article-title":"Harmonic ratios: A quantification of step to step symmetry","volume":"46","author":"Bellanca","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergamini, E., Cereatti, A., and Pavei, G. (2024). Walking symmetry is speed and index dependent. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-69461-w"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavei, G., Seminati, E., Cazzola, D., and Minetti, A.E. (2017). On the Estimation Accuracy of the 3D Body Center of Mass Trajectory during Human Locomotion: Inverse vs. Forward Dynamics. Front. Physiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.00129"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2022.09.025","article-title":"Just a matter of indexes: Symmetry in walking","volume":"97","author":"Bergamini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/6\/1764\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:51:26Z","timestamp":1760028686000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/25\/6\/1764"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s25061764"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s25061764","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]]}}}