{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T08:57:57Z","timestamp":1791363477766,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742342400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100018693","name":"Horizon Europe project","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101129644"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101129644"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100018693","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Interreg Flanders-Netherlands project","award":["101129644"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101129644"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Soil compaction is a widespread problem, leading to soil degradation, yield losses, and adverse environmental impacts. Nowadays, various measurement methods exist to assess and map soil compaction, with vertical cone penetration resistance measurements being one of the most commonly used. This method is easy, rapid, inexpensive, and generally accepted. However, manual penetration resistance measurements are time-consuming, labor-intensive, and often less accurate due to inconsistent penetration speed. To address these limitations, an automated penetrometer was developed and integrated on an autonomous robot platform, paving the way for high-resolution compaction mapping as a starting point for precision subsoiling to remediate soil compaction. The performance of this setup was validated in controlled and field conditions against a hand-held penetrometer. Therefore, experiments were conducted in soil-filled cylinders and on plots of a long-term field experiment, including measurements across spraying tracks. The automated penetrometer demonstrated high correlations with the hand-held device under controlled conditions, though the correlation was somewhat lower in the field due to the soil\u2019s heterogeneity. Deviations between the two measurement devices were likely caused by the inconsistent insertion speed of the hand-held penetrometer, particularly in soils with high penetration resistance. Both penetrometers successfully identified the plow pan at a depth of 30\u201340 cm but were unable to clearly show the effect of the long-term presence of spraying tracks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25061919","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T10:38:48Z","timestamp":1742380728000},"page":"1919","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Development and In-Field Validation of an Autonomous Soil Mechanical Resistance Sensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3548-543X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentijn","family":"De Cauwer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Food Science Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Plants and Crops, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Cool","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Food Science Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3893-5632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Axel","family":"Willekens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Food Science Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S\u00e9bastien","family":"Temmerman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Food Science Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4531-0526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Nuyttens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technology and Food Science Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tommy","family":"D\u2019 Hose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Plant Science Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), 9820 Merelbeke-Melle, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4034-9269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Pieters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plants and Crops, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3792-5026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sam","family":"Leroux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.46234\/ccdcw2021.160","article-title":"Major trends in population growth around the world","volume":"3","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"China CDC Wkly."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Hartemink, A.E. 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