{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:07:50Z","timestamp":1787029670518,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,30]],"date-time":"2025-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743292800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/05210\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05210\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: To analyse the relationship between traditional stiffness and muscle antagonist coactivation in both stroke and healthy participants, using linear and non-linear measures of coactivation and COP during standing, stand-to-sit, and gait initiation. Methods: Participants were evaluated through a cross-sectional design. Electromyography, isokinetic dynamometer, and force plate were used to calculate coactivation, intrinsic and functional stiffness, and COP displacement, with both linear and non-linear metrics. Spearman\u2019s correlations and Mann\u2013Whitney tests were applied (p &lt; 0.05). Results: Post-stroke participants showed higher contralesional intrinsic stiffness (p = 0.041) and higher functional stiffness (p = 0.047). Coactivation was higher on the ipsilesional side during standing (p = 0.012) and reduced on the contralesional side during standing and transitions (p &lt; 0.01). Moderate correlations were found between intrinsic and functional stiffness (p = 0.030) and between coactivation and intrinsic stiffness (standing and stand-to-sit: p = 0.048) and functional stiffness (gait initiation: p = 0.045). COP displacement was reduced in post-stroke participants during standing (p &lt; 0.001) and increased during gait initiation (p = 0.001). Post-stroke participants exhibited increased gastrocnemius\/tibialis anterior coactivation during gait initiation (p = 0.038) and higher entropy and stability across tasks (p &lt; 0.001). Conclusion: Post-stroke participants showed higher contralesional intrinsic and functional stiffness, reduced coactivation in static tasks, and increased coactivation in dynamic tasks. COP and coactivation analyses revealed impaired stability and random control, highlighting the importance of multidimensional evaluations of postural tone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25072196","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]],"date-time":"2025-03-31T02:50:16Z","timestamp":1743389416000},"page":"2196","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A Comprehensive Understanding of Postural Tone Biomechanics: Intrinsic Stiffness, Functional Stiffness, Antagonist Coactivation, and COP Dynamics in Post-Stroke Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6751-5269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liliana","family":"Pinho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade do Vale do Ave, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polit\u00e9cnico e Universit\u00e1rio, Rua Jos\u00e9 Ant\u00f3nio Vidal, 81, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre of Research Rehabilitation (CIR), Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade, rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"H2M\u2014Health and Human Movement Unit, Polytechnic University of Health, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polite\u0301cnico e Universita\u0301rio, Cooperativa de Responsabilidade Limitada, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6325-6412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade do Vale do Ave, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polit\u00e9cnico e Universit\u00e1rio, Rua Jos\u00e9 Ant\u00f3nio Vidal, 81, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre of Research Rehabilitation (CIR), Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade, rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"H2M\u2014Health and Human Movement Unit, Polytechnic University of Health, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polite\u0301cnico e Universita\u0301rio, Cooperativa de Responsabilidade Limitada, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0640-8181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Pinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade do Vale do Ave, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polit\u00e9cnico e Universit\u00e1rio, Rua Jos\u00e9 Ant\u00f3nio Vidal, 81, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"},{"name":"H2M\u2014Health and Human Movement Unit, Polytechnic University of Health, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polite\u0301cnico e Universita\u0301rio, Cooperativa de Responsabilidade Limitada, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4815-4896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade do Vale do Ave, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polit\u00e9cnico e Universit\u00e1rio, Rua Jos\u00e9 Ant\u00f3nio Vidal, 81, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"},{"name":"H2M\u2014Health and Human Movement Unit, Polytechnic University of Health, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polite\u0301cnico e Universita\u0301rio, Cooperativa de Responsabilidade Limitada, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7924-6895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00e2nia","family":"Figueira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade do Vale do Ave, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polit\u00e9cnico e Universit\u00e1rio, Rua Jos\u00e9 Ant\u00f3nio Vidal, 81, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"H2M\u2014Health and Human Movement Unit, Polytechnic University of Health, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polite\u0301cnico e Universita\u0301rio, Cooperativa de Responsabilidade Limitada, 4760-409 Vila Nova de Famalic\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edgar","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Research Rehabilitation (CIR), Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade, rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino 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