{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T15:35:49Z","timestamp":1793806549866,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745539200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MUR","award":["DM 1062\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DM 1062\/21"]}]},{"name":"Compagnia di San Paolo","award":["DM 1062\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DM 1062\/21"]}]},{"name":"European Union Next-Generation EU","award":["DM 1062\/21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DM 1062\/21"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The early diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease remains an unmet medical need due to the cost and invasiveness of current methods. Early detection would ensure a higher quality of life for patients, enabling timely and suitable treatment. We investigate microwave sensing for low-cost, non-intrusive early detection and assessment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. This study is based on the emerging evidence that the electromagnetic properties of cerebrospinal fluid are affected by abnormal concentrations of proteins recognized as early-stage biomarkers. We design a conformal six-element antenna array placed on the upper portion of the head, operating in the 500 MHz to 6.5 GHz band. It measures scattering response due to changes in the dielectric properties of intracranial cerebrospinal fluid. A multi-layer perceptron network extracts the diagnostic information. Data classification consists of two steps: binary classification to identify the disease presence and multi-class classification to evaluate its stage. The algorithm is trained and validated through controlled experiments mimicking various pathological severities with an anthropomorphic multi-tissue head phantom. Results support the feasibility of the proposed method using only amplitude data and lay the foundation for more extensive studies on microwave sensing for early Alzheimer\u2019s detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25092718","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T08:02:57Z","timestamp":1745568177000},"page":"2718","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Early Detection of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease via Machine Learning-Based Microwave Sensing: An Experimental Validation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4043-0182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Cardinali","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1359-4912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Mariano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0408-9308","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David O.","family":"Rodriguez-Duarte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4726-5017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge A.","family":"Tob\u00f3n Vasquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6363-9253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Scapaticci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for the Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA), National Research Council of Italy, 80124 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2498-3219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Crocco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for the Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA), National Research Council of Italy, 80124 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0791-9269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Vipiana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"National Institute on Aging (2025, January 23). 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