{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T13:13:39Z","timestamp":1778591619368,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,26]],"date-time":"2025-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748217600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sepsis is a severe systemic condition due to an extreme response of the body to an infection. It is responsible for a significant number of deaths worldwide, and is still difficult to diagnose early. In this study, a system was developed for exhaled breath sampling in mechanically ventilated patients at the intensive care unit (ICU), together with a custom-made electronic nose (e-Nose) device for detecting sepsis in exhaled breath. The diagnostic performance of this system was evaluated in an animal sepsis model. Ten pigs (LPS group) were administered lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce a systemic inflammatory response. Nine other pigs received a placebo solution (control group). Exhaled breath samples were collected in NalophanTM bags and stored for temperature and humidity equilibration before e-Nose analysis. Measurements were corrected for the effects of different fractions of inspired oxygen (FiO2) on e-Nose sensors. Two classification models using e-Nose and physiological measurements were developed and compared. One hour after LPS administration, the e-Nose data model with FiO2 correction showed a higher accuracy (76.2% (95% confidence interval (CI) [58.0, 94.2])) than the physiological data model (59.0% (95% CI [39.5, 79.5])), indicating the potential of the early detection of sepsis with an e-Nose.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25113343","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,27]],"date-time":"2025-05-27T05:52:52Z","timestamp":1748325172000},"page":"3343","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Development of an E-Nose System for the Early Diagnosis of Sepsis During Mechanical Ventilation: A Porcine Feasibility Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0728-1613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Robbiani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information, and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5094-2512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Louwrina H.","family":"te Nijenhuis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus MC Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6421-3035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia A. C.","family":"Specht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Experimental Anesthesiology, Department of Anesthesiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emanuele","family":"Zanni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information, and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3820-2321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen","family":"Bax","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering Giulio Natta, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Egbert G.","family":"Mik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Experimental Anesthesiology, Department of Anesthesiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5478-4993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Floor A.","family":"Harms","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Experimental Anesthesiology, Department of Anesthesiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2667-3169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Willem van","family":"Weteringen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus MC Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0002-3619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Capelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering Giulio Natta, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3672-4591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele L.","family":"Dellac\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information, and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.0287","article-title":"The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3)","volume":"315","author":"Singer","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"565","article-title":"Sepsis in the Intensive Care Unit","volume":"33","author":"Bennet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1007\/s00063-023-01088-7","article-title":"Challenges of Assessing the Burden of Sepsis","volume":"118","author":"Rudd","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. 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