{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T03:49:34Z","timestamp":1790912974827,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]],"date-time":"2025-06-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42271453"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271453"]}]},{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2021JJLH0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021JJLH0011"]}]},{"name":"the Hainan Provincial Joint Project of Sanya Yazhou Bay Science and Technology City","award":["42271453"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271453"]}]},{"name":"the Hainan Provincial Joint Project of Sanya Yazhou Bay Science and Technology City","award":["2021JJLH0011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021JJLH0011"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To address the inefficiencies and limited spatial resolution of traditional single-point monitoring techniques, this study proposes a multi-scale analysis method that integrates the Multi-Scale Model-to-Model Cloud Comparison (M3C2) algorithm with least-squares plane fitting. This approach employs the M3C2 algorithm for qualitative full-field deformation detection and utilizes least-squares plane fitting for quantitative feature extraction. When applied to the approach span of a cross-river bridge in Hubei Province, China, this method leverages dense point clouds (greater than 500 points per square meter) acquired using a Leica RTC360 scanner. Data preprocessing incorporates curvature-adaptive cascade denoising, achieving over 98% noise removal while retaining more than 95% of structural features, along with octree-based simplification. By extracting multi-level slice features from bridge decks and piers, this method enables the simultaneous analysis of global trends and local deformations. The results revealed significant deformation, with an average settlement of 8.2 mm in the left deck area. The bridge deck exhibited a deformation trend characterized by left and higher right in the vertical direction, while the bridge piers displayed noticeable tilting, particularly with the maximum offset of the rear pier columns reaching 182.2 mm, which exceeded the deformation of the front pier. The bridge deck\u2019s micro-settlement error was \u00b11.2 mm, and the pier inclination error was \u00b12.8 mm, meeting the Chinese Highway Bridge Maintenance Code (JTG H11-2004) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standards, and the multi-scale algorithm achieved engineering-level accuracy. Utilizing point cloud densities &gt;500 pt\/m2, the M3C2 algorithm achieved a spatial resolution of 0.5 mm, enabling sub-millimeter full-field analysis for complex scenarios. This method significantly enhances bridge safety monitoring precision, enhances the precision of intelligent systems monitoring, and supports the development of targeted systems as pile foundation reinforcement efforts and as improvements to foundations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25133869","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,23]],"date-time":"2025-06-23T04:50:05Z","timestamp":1750654205000},"page":"3869","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Bridge Deformation Monitoring Combining 3D Laser Scanning with Multi-Scale Algorithms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3620-4798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dongmei","family":"Tan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sanya Science and Education Innovation Park, Wuhan University of Technology, Sanya 572000, China"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenjie","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9657-8995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Baifeng","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sanya Science and Education Innovation Park, Wuhan University of Technology, Sanya 572000, China"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"40","article-title":"Whole object deformation monitoring based on 3D laser scanning technology","volume":"7","author":"Luo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bull. 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