{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T19:50:40Z","timestamp":1785009040058,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009910","name":"HARTMANN FOUNDATION","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["A33234"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A33234"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009910","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: There are only a few available options for early rehabilitation of severely impaired individuals who must remain bedbound, as most exercise paradigms focus on out-of-bed exercises. To enable these individuals to exercise, we developed a novel hybrid rehabilitation system combining a brain\u2013computer interface (BCI), functional electrical stimulation (FES), and a robotic device. Methods: The BCI assessed the presence of a movement-related cortical potential (MRCP) and triggered the administration of FES to produce movement of the lower limb. The exercise trajectory was supported by the robotic device. To demonstrate the system, an experiment was conducted in an out-of-lab setting by ten able-bodied participants. During exercise, the performance of the BCI was assessed, and the participants evaluated the system using the NASA Task Load Index, Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, and by answering a few subjective questions. Results: The BCI reached a true positive rate of 62.6 \u00b1 9.2% and, on average, predicted the movement initiation 595 \u00b1 129 ms prior to the MRCP peak negativity. All questionnaires showed favorable outcomes for the use of the system. Conclusions: The developed system was usable by all participants, but its clinical feasibility is uncertain due to the total time required for setting up the system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25154571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T09:05:12Z","timestamp":1753347912000},"page":"4571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Design and Demonstration of a Hybrid FES-BCI-Based Robotic Neurorehabilitation System for Lower Limbs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4952-5663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kasper S.","family":"Leerskov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Neurorehabilitation Robotics and Engineering Group, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"The Center for Rehabilitation Robotics, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1275-4064","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika G.","family":"Spaich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"Neurorehabilitation Systems Group, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7729-4359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mads R.","family":"Jochumsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Center for Rehabilitation Robotics, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"Neural Engineering and Neurophysiology, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0484-5962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lotte N. S.","family":"Andreasen Struijk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Neurorehabilitation Robotics and Engineering Group, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"The Center for Rehabilitation Robotics, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-017-0686-6","article-title":"Early Rehabilitation After Stroke: A Narrative Review","volume":"19","author":"Coleman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. 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