{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T18:06:26Z","timestamp":1789927586258,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755648000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Research, Technology and Space (BMFTR)","award":["03FHP180A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["03FHP180A"]}]},{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Research, Technology and Space (BMFTR)","award":["19OI23014C"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19OI23014C"]}]},{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Transport (BMV)","award":["03FHP180A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["03FHP180A"]}]},{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Transport (BMV)","award":["19OI23014C"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19OI23014C"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work focuses on time and frequency domain analyses of IMU-based orientation estimation algorithms, including indirect Kalman (IKF), Madgwick (MF), and complementary (CF) filters. Euler angles and quaternions are used for orientation representation. A 6-DoF IMU is attached to a 6-joint UR5e robotic arm, with the robot\u2019s orientation serving as the reference. Robotic arm data is obtained via an RTDE interface and IMU data via a CAN bus. Test signals include pose sequences, which are big-amplitude, slowly changing signals used to evaluate stationary and low-dynamics responses in the time domain, and small-amplitude, fast-changing generalized binary noise (GBN) signals used to evaluate dynamic responses in the frequency domain. To prevent poor filters\u2019 performance, their parameters are tuned. In the time domain, RMSE and MaxAE are calculated for roll and pitch. In the frequency domain, composite frequency response and coherence are calculated using the Ockier method. RMSEs are computed for response magnitude and coherence, and averaged equivalent time delay (AETD) is derived from the response phase. In the time domain, MF and CF show the best overall performance. In the frequency domain, they again perform similarly well. IKF consistently performs the worst in both domains but achieves the lowest AETD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s25165161","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T07:50:46Z","timestamp":1755676246000},"page":"5161","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Time and Frequency Domain Analysis of IMU-Based Orientation Estimation Algorithms with Comparison to Robotic Arm Orientation as Reference"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3821-1693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruslan","family":"Sultan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Management and Technology, Hochschule Osnabr\u00fcck, Kaiserstr. 10c, 49809 Lingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5609-6180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steffen","family":"Greiser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Management and Technology, Hochschule Osnabr\u00fcck, Kaiserstr. 10c, 49809 Lingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Sultan, R., Greiser, S., and Brix, N. 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